IpE 1109 


I.G82 


1830 


ICopy 1 





' %■/*+'- 6. 






<&<fyi^Lt<=M LI 



UNITED STATES OP AMERICA. 








•N* 



PRACTICAL GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 



• 

IN WHICH THE 



PRINCIPLES ESTABLISHED BY LINDLEY 



MURRAY. 



ARE INCULCATED, AND HIS 



THEORY OP THE MOODS 



WHICH THEY ARE FORMED. 

SECOND EDITION, IMPROVED. 

I '• \ 

BY ROSCOE G.GREENE. 



PORTLAND: 

PUBLISHED BY SHIRLEY AND HYDE, EXCHANGE-8TREET. 

1830. 



*Jt\ 






Q 



DISTRICT OE MAINE-to wit 

District Clerk's Office. 

BE IT REMEMBERED that on the first dsy of March, A. D. 1830, and in the fifty, fifth year of 
the Independence of the United States of America. Mr. Thomas Tcdd, of said District, has 
deposited in this office,Jhe title uf a book the right whereof be claims as proprietor in the words 
following, to wit: 

** A Practical Grammar of the English Language, in which the Principles established by Lind- 
ley Murray, are inculcated, and hi- theory of the moods clearly illustrated by diagrams represent- 
ing the number of tenses in each mood— their signs — and the manner in which they are formed. — 
Sea-aid edition, improved. By Roscoe G. Greene.'' 

In conf srmity to the act of Congress of the United States, entitled " An Act for the encour- 
agement of learning:, by securing the copies o» Maps, charts and books, to the authors & proprietors 
of such copies, dunng the times therein noentUned ;" and also, to an act,, entitled "An Act sup- 
plementary to an act entitled An Act for ihe encouiagcmenr*of learning, by securing the copies of 
maps, charts and books to the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein 
mentioned : and for extending the benefits thereof to the. arts of designing, engraving antt etching- 
historic, 1 a: d other prints." J. MUSSEY, Clerk of the District of Maine. 

A true copy as of record. 

Attest, J. MUSSEY, Clerk of the District of Maine. 



7H# 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 

" Messrs. Shirley & Hyde. 

Qentlemn— Having used Mr. GREENE'S GRAMMAR in my School for a number of months 
past, I do not hesitate to say that for its simplicity »nd conciseness, the two most tisential requi- 
sites in a Text Book for Schools, I consider it entitled to a high degree of merit 

JOSEPH LIBBY," Teacher, Classical School 

Portland, Feb. 26, 1830. 



Portland English High School, \ 
Feb. 25, 1830 J 

To the Publishers. 

Gentlemen,- l e»H>..,t better express my opinion of R G GREENE'S GRAMMAR, than by as- 
curing you that I highly approve the School Committee's selection of it for thU School. 

3. M. PURINTON, Teacher. 



%ztt 




***< 



RECOMME ND ATIOIVS. 



Having examined Mr.H. G. Greene's compilation of English Grammar, and tested its utility by 
actual experiment in my own school, I do not hesitate to say that I consider his arrangment of 
the subject — matter,and particularly his manner of illustrating the Moods and Tenses, far prefera- 
ble to any other system which I have seen. And I confidently believe that wherever his book is 
used, and his plan pursued, much labor will be saved, both to the Teacher and the Pupil. I there- 
fore earnestly wish him success in his laudable undertaking, and confidently hope his industry 
will be liberally rewarded by the patronage of the public. 

" HENRY JACKSON," Teacher of Monitorial School No. 1. 
Portland, Dec. 10, 1828, 



The following remarks, from the Christian Mirror of June 6, are from the pen of Rev. Asa Cum" 

mings. 

"Mr. Greene's plan of teaching the English Grammar has the best of all recommendations to 
sustain its pretensions— that of " successful experiment." He commences with a familiar ex- 
planation of the noun, which is the only part of speech except the interjection, which can be ex- 
plained unconnected with any other. When the noun, with its person, number and gender, is 
well understood, he explains the article and its uses, and then exercises the pupil on examples 
prepared for the purpose. He next takes up the adjective, explaining its variations, office, and 
connection with the noun, and exercising the pupil on a variety of examples composed of the 
article, adjective and noun. The next in his order is the actve verb, which also is fully explained, 
and the office of a noun in the nominative case, as an actor, is illustrated by appropriate exer- 
cises. Into the next following lesson the adverb is introduced, and the examples for exercise con 
tain the adverb and the parts of speech before mentioned, thus combining what is new, at each 
step, with what has before been rendered familiar to the pupil. In this manner the pupil is 
carried forward, unembarrassed, and understandingly, from the simplest to the abstruser parts 
of this complicated science. He is prepared, by previous acquisitions, to comprehend each part, 
as it is successively presented to the mind. When all the parts of speech have been introduced, 
and their character, government, agreement, &c. are already understood — for which from ten to 
fifteen lessons are requisite — the pupil enters upon the study of the moods and tenses, in which 
the same regard to order in the arrangement of examples for exercise is observed, as in the in- 
troduction of the several parts of speech. In this perhaps the most difficult part of Grammar, 
the learner is assisted by Diagrams representing the moods and tenses, in which their various 
characteristics are impressed on the mind, by being presented to the eye. Their regular loca- 
tion in these Diagramas aided by the principle of association, is admirably adapted to favor their 
retention in the student's mind, as well as to facilitate his further progress. 



^tw^jviv 



*v HECOMMEl^DATrONS; 

When the regular verbs ire disposed of, different kinds of verbs are introduced and illustrated 
followed by lessons in analytical parsing,— supplying ellipses- exercises in bad syntax— Punctual 
tion, Rhetoric, Composition, <fcc. &c. 

This imperfect outline of his plan will show^that Mr. Greene's mode, of teaching is philosophi- 
cal, in the approved sense of the term. As a man. and a teacher, he needs not our recommenda- 
tion. A five year's residence in this town has secured him the esteem and confidence of those? 
who have had the beit opportunity to know him." 



"The undersigned, having witnessed the examination of a class m English Grammar under 1 
the tuition of Mr. R. G, Greene of this town, and feeling desirous to promote the diffusion of the 1 
best principles of education, as well as to do an act of justice to Mr. Gyeene as an instructor? 
deem it proper to state the following facts. 

" The class examined in our presence, consisted of seven ladies. They had received twentv 
daily lessons^ of one hour each, and stated that they had not devoted more than one additional 
hour to the study upon an average, each day, making the whole not to exceed forty hours. Most 
of them, when they commenced this course of lessons, were entirely unacquainted with the 
principles of Grammar. They now appeared to be familiar with all the parts of speech and 
their various modifications, could readily parse any simple construction of the English language,, 
and answer the most -difficult questions with respect to the formation of the several modes and 
tenses. 

"It appeared to us that th* progress of this class for the time tfiey had devoted to the study y . 
had been much greater thsn is usually made in our schools under the ordinary mode of instruc- 
tion, and we cheerfully recommend to public patronage both the system and the man." 

"ALBION K. 1 ARRIS," Governor of the State of Maine. 
Rev. "ASA RAND," Editor Boston Recorder. 

Portland, July 29, 1823. r 



* Haviug attended an examination of a class of young Pupils, who had received twenty les- 
sons in English Grammar from their instructer, Mr. R. G. Greene, I am able to express my en- 
fire concurrence in the opinion heretofore certified from various quarters, in regard to his quali- 
fication and success in tnis department of instruction. I have never witnessed any other in 
stance of such proficiency in so short a time. Mr. Greene s instsuction illustrates, very forcibly, 
the importance of presenting a complicated subject to young minds in disiinct and successive 
portions, and of constantly calling the attention to the reasons and general principles which ap- 
pertain to that subject." Hon. "JOSEPH G. KENDALL, a. M.» 

Late a Tutor in Harvard College. 

Leominster, (Ms.) May 24, 1823, 



"At the request of Mr. ft. G. Greene, w^e visited a School, instructed by him in English Gram- 
mar. He appears to us well qualified for performing this duty. From the rapid proficiency 
made by his Pupils, and from the critical and thorough examination, which we attended, we 
cheerfully recommend his course of instruction, as highly favorable for young men and women f 
who, in the present arrangemeut of our schools, have but a short season for literary improve- 
ment. 

H NATHANIEL THAYER," D. IX 

"NATHANIEL WOO'D^' A, B.. Tutor Harvard College, Cam* 
Lancaster, (Ms.) Jan. 11, 1823. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. r 

-From a knowledge of the great defects, arising from want of method, in the long established! 
mode of instruction in English Grammar, and also from an acquaintance with the system pur- 
sued by Mr R. G. Greene, which is now before the public, I am fully satisfied that the progress 
of the student may be facilitated thereby, in a degree far exceeding that of any other; and I do- 
confidently believe, that no one, who has fairly and impartially examined the same, will hesitate 
fo give it his decided approbation," " DANIEL CLARKE, A. M." 

Portland, Aug. 6, 1823. Late PrecepLo of Warren Academy, 



The fclloxving, hy William B. Sewalf, Esq. is taken from the Portland Gazette, 

"We were recently indulged with an opportunity of witnessing the progress made by a class 
of young Indies, having nearly completed a course of instruction in English Grammar, under the 
tuition of Mr. fvreene, who has been engaged in that branch of education in this town, for a tew 
mo Aha past, li is but justice to the instructer and his pupils to say that the mode of explaining, 
and illustrating t e elements of our language, by the system this gentleman has adopted, is such? 
as to have oeen attended with uncommon success. It is not merely by a mechanical exercise 
of memory that the pupil is conducted in his course of instruction^ but the rationale of every 
precept is explained at each step of his progress, until the principles of grammar and the con- 
struction of language are fully and clearly understood. It has been said of old, and the maxim, 
has truth as well antiquity in its favor, " There is no royal way to learning/' It is undoubtedly 
true that no valuable intellectual superiority can be attained but by assiduous application and 
unwearied industry j but that there are more direct approaches to the eminences of learning, 
than are sometimes pursued, cannot be de.ied by those who have been in any degree conversant 
with the history of the progress of the human m>ind. Those, who are able to aflord us any such 
facilities to the acquisition of knowledge, in whatever branch it may be, are entitled to substan- 
tial encouragement— and believing, as we do, Mr. Greene to be altogether deserving, we most cor- 
dially wish him an abundant harvest of public patronage." 



"Dear Sir— So far as I have had opportunity to examine your Grammar of the English Lan- 
guage, I am satisfied that, while it does not, and should not aim at originality of matt-r, its ar^ 
rangmeuts, and very appropriate examples for illustration, will be found by the teacher well 
adapted to lead the learner, step by step, through the elementary forms of the language, till lie is 
able to understand, if not in some cases to anticipate the generalizations, which a e given>ia 
lhatpartof the Treatise which follows the elementary instructions. 
"Respectfully, your obedient servant, 

Rev, "S.ADAMS," 

Principal of the High School for Females- 
"Mr. R. G. GREENE, 
"Portland, Dec. 18, 1828." 



Extract from the Journal of the proceedings of the Artisan y s Institute, 
u Voted y That the .Society highly approve of the Grammar published by Mr. R. G. Greene, and 
that it be used in the fachool under their direction*" 

" CHARLES HOLDEN, Chairman." 
"L. WHITNEY, Secretary^* 
Portland, Dec. 1828, 



PREFACE 



A competent knowledge of the Grammar of the English Language, is 
now considered so essential a part of a business education, that no apology 
for attempting to render the acquisition of it less difficult to beginners, is 
deemed necessary. 

In selecting materials for the following pages, (though the system of 
Lindley Murray was considered the standard,) the works of other eminent 
writers on Grammar were consulted, and their opinions in some instances 
adopted. It was not however, the object of the compiler to make 
innovations in the science itself, but to present an improved method of 
teaching it — to give to long established principles, a form more interest- 
ing and useful to the learner, than any yet presented to the public. 

That oral instruction is calculated to make a more lasting impression 
upon the mind,than that received solely from books, will, he thinks, be ad- 
mitted by all who are acquainted with the difficulties of teaching this 
science. He has, therefore, presented nothing, in the first lessons, but the 
Definitions, Rules, and Examples necessary for practice in parsing, &c 
leaving it for the instructer to supply whatever may be found necessary, 
by verbal illustration. 

The verb, with beginners in the study, is found the most difficult part 
of Grammar ; — not in itself, but on account of the different forms that 
it takes, and the great variety of changes which it undergoes in passing 
through the Moods and Tenses. In order to obviate these perplexities, 
and give facility and interest to the progress of the student, the compiler 
has formed Diagrams of the several Moods; presenting, at one view, the 
number of Tenses in each, their Signs, and the manner in which they are 
formed. 

The utility of these Diagrams has been tested in the instruction of 
several Classes ; and it is confidently believed, that if properly used, they 
will be found as useful in acquiring a critical knowledge of the most com- 
plicated part of Grammar, as maps are in the study of Geography. 



PREFACE- 

Experience has abundantly shown to every teacher -of Grammar, inatt 
learners, especially young learners, find much difficulty in committing io 
memory the variations of the verb in the several moods and tenses, and 
still more, in understanding and retaining them. 

Something more than the mere metaphysical distinction conveyed by 
words, seems to be necessary in order to render the first efforts in this 
subject, successful and pleasant. 

A striking view of seusible objects, under such modifications as will 
suggest and illustrate the proper distinctions., and afford, at a glance, the 
means of comparison, must necessarily possess for untutored minds, 
great advantages over the subtle, distilling process of words. 

Every person, who has at all observed the operations of his own mind, 
must have felt the power of external objects in calling up a train of ideas? 
which for years before, may not have recurred to him. 

Reflection will always effectually serve those who in disposing of their 
ideas, employ the principle of local association. When they touch upon 
a link of the well united chain, whether "tenth or ten thousandth," they 
are able to follow the successive connection to each extremity. 

It is upon this unfailing principle of local association, that these dia- 
grams are formed. 

*•' All the signs by which otrr thoughts are expressed" says Dugald 
Stuart, " are addressed either to the eye or to the ear ; and the impres- 
sions made on these organs, at the time when we first receive an idea, 
•contribute to give us a firmer hold of it. Visible objects are remembered 
more easily than those of any other of our senses; and hence it is, that 
the bulk of mankind are more aided in their recollection by impressions 
made on the eye, than by tnose made on the ear. Every person must 
fiave remarked, in studying the elements of geometry, how much his 
recollection of the theorenls was aided by the diagrams which are con- 
nected with themv This advantage, which the objects of sight, naturally 
-have over those of hearing, in the distinctness and permanence of the 
impression which they ma"ke on the memory, continues,and even increase* 
through life, in the case of the bulk of mankind," 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the art of speaking and writing the 
English language with propriety 

It is divided into four parts, viz. Orthography, Etymol- 
ogy, Syntax, and Prosody. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 

lithography teaches the nature and powers of letters, and the just 
method of spelling words. 

Letters are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is an articulate sound, that can be perfectly uttered by itself: 
as, a, e, o ; which are formed without the help of any other sound. 

A consonant is an articulate sound, which cannot be perfectly uttered 
without the help of a vowel: as, 6, d,f, I; which require vowels to express 
them fully. 

The vowels are, a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes iv, and y. 

W and y are consonants when they begin a word or syllable ; but in 
every other situation they are vowels. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi- vowels. 

The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the aid of a vowel. They 
are, b, p, t, d, k, and c and g hard. 

The semi- vowels have an imperfect sound of themselves. They are,/, 
/, ??t, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are also distinguished by 
the name of liquids, from their readily uniting with other consonants, and 
flowing as it were into their sounds. 

A dipthong is the union of two vowels, pronounced by a single impulse 
of the voice ; as, ea in beat, ou in sound. 

A tripthong is the union of three vowels, pronounced in like manner ; 
as eau in beau, ietv in view. 

A proper dipthong is that in which both the vowels are sounded ; as oi 
in voice, ou in ounce. 

An improper dipthong has but one of the vowels sounded ; as, ea in eagle, 
oa in boat. 

2 



10 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



SYLLABLES. 

A syllable is a sound either simple or compounded, pronounced by a 
single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word, or part of a word: as, 
a, an, ant. 

Spelling is the art of rightly dividing words into their syllables ; or of 
expressing a word by its proper letters. 

WORDS. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, as signs of our 
ideas. 

A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable; a word of two sylla- 
bles, a dissyllable ; a word of three syllables, a trisyllable ; and a word of 
four or more syllables, a polysyllable. 

All words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced to any simpler word 
in the language ; as, man, good, content. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced to another word in Eng- 
lish of greater simplicity ; as, manful,' goodness, contentment, Yorkshire. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 
The orthography of the English language is attended with much uncer- 
tainty and perplexity. But a considerable part of this inconvenience may 
be remedied, by attending to the general laws of formation ; and, for this 
end, is presented a view of such general maxims, in spelling primitive and 
derivative words, as have been almost universally received. 

RULE I. 

Monosyllables ending with/, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant : as, staff, mill, pass, &c. The only exceptions are, of, 
if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, and thus. 

RULE II. 

Monosyllables ending with any consonant but/, I, or s, and preceded by 
a single vowel, never double the final consonant ; excepting only, add, ebb, 
butt, egg, odd, err, inn, bunn, purr, and buzz. 

RULE III. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant form the plurals of nouns, 
the persons of verbs, verbal nouns, past participles, comparatives, and su- 
perlatives, by changing y into i: as spy, spies; I carry, thou carriest; he 
.carrieth or carries ; carrier, carried ; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle, in ing, retains the y, that i may not be doubled ; 
as, carry, carrying ; bury, burying, &c. 

But?/, preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the above, is not chang- 
ed; as, boy , boys; I cloy, he cloys, ck^ed, &c; except in lay, pay, and 
say ; from which are formed, laid, paid, and said ; and their compounds, 
unlaid, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 

RULE IV. 

Words ending with y, preceded by a consonant, upon assuming an addi- 
tional syllable beginning with a consonant, commonly change ymtoi; as, 
happy, happily, happiness. But when y is preceded by a vowel, it is very 
rarely changed in the additional syllable : as, coy, coyly ; boy, boyish, boy- 
hood: annoy, annoyed, annoyance ; joy, joyless, joyful, &c. 

rule v. 
Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, ending with a 
single consonant preceded by a single vowel, double that consonant, when 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 1 1 

they take another syllable beginning with a vowel : as, wit, witty ; thin, 
thinnish; to abet, an abetter; to begin, a beginner. 

But if a dipthong precedes, or the accent is on the preceding syllable, the 
consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer, an offering ; maid, 
maiden, &c. 

RULE VI. 

Words ending with any double letter but I, and taking ness, less, ly, or ful 9 
after them, preserve the letter double ; as harmlessness, carelessness, care- 
lessly, stiffly, successful, distressful, &c. But those words which end with 
double I, and take ness, less, ly, or fid, after them, generally omit one I: as, 
fulness, skilless, fully, skilful, &c. 

RULE VII. 

Ness, less, ly, and ful, added to words ending with silent e, do not cut it 
off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peaceful ; except in a few words : as, 
duly, truly, awful. 

RULE VIII. 

Merit, added to words ending with silent e, generally preserves the e from 
elision: as, abatement, chastisement, incitement, &c. The words judg- 
ment, abridgment, acknowledgment, are deviations from the rule. 

Like other terminations, it changes y into i, when preceded by a conso- 
nant : as, accompany, accompanied ; merry, merriment. 

RULE IX. 

Able and ible, when incorporated into words ending with silent c, almost 
always cut it off; as, blame, blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible, &c. ; 
but if c or g soft comes before e in the original word, the e is then preserv- 
ed in words compounded with able, as, change, changeable ; peace, peace- 
able, &c. 

rule x. 

When ing, or ish, is added to words ending with silent e, the e is almost 
universally omitted : as, place, placing ; lodge, lodging ; slave, slavish ; 
prude, prudish. 

RULE XI. 

Compounded words are generally spelled in the same manner, as the 
simple words of which they are formed: as, glasshouse ; skylight, there- 
by, hereafter. Many words ending with double I, are exceptions to this 
rule; as, already, welfare, wilful, fulfil: and also the words, wherever, 
Christmas, lammas, &c. 



*>♦«©#* 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

The second part of Grammar is Etymology; which treats 
of the different sorts of words, their various modifications and 
their derivation. 

The third part of Grammar is Syntax, which treats of the 
agreement and construction of words in a sentence. 



12 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON I. 

OF NOUNS. A noun is the name of any thing that we can 
see, taste, hear, smell, feel, or conceive of. 

The noun has four properties, viz. Person, Number, Gender and Case. 

Or Person. Person is* that quality of the noun, which modifies the 
verb. 

There are three persons, viz. the first, the second, and the third. 

The first person denotes the speaker — the second, the person spoken 
to — and the third, the person spoken of. 

Of Number. Number is the consideration of an object, as one or more. 

Nouns have two numbers, viz. the singular, and the plural. 

The singular number denotes but one object — the plural denotes more 
I'j an one. 

Of Gender. Gender is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. 

There are three genders, viz. the Masculine, the Feminine, and the Neu- 
ter. 

The masculine gender denotes animals of the male kind — the feminine, 
animals of the female kind — but the neuter denotes animals neither male 
wor female. 

Parsing a word means pointing out the part of speech to which it belongs, and naming its 
properties, relations, &c. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In ivhich it is required of the pupil to name the part of speech, and give its person, number, «n«i 
gender. 

Men 



Women 


> are seen. 


Trees 




Wines 


/ are tasted. 


Apples 


Plums 


Music 


1 


Thunder 


> is heard. 


Echo 


) 


Odour 


) 


Incense 


> is smelted^. 


Perfume 


S 


Joy 


) 


Fear 


> is felt. 


Hope 


5 



Time } 

Space > is conceived of. 

Vacuity ) 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a NOUN'— How many properties have nouns .'-What are they called ?- What is 
ine^ntbvpLon '-How many persons have nouns ?- What does each person denote .'-What 
s Zpber '-How many members have nouns .'-What are they called .'-What does the singular 
rmber e denoS°'-vVha\ does the plural number denote '-What is ^ t %££%^™ 
„„„, fjpnilprs are there '—What does the Masculine Gender denote '.— What does me feminine 
Ser denoS ?-What does the Ifeuter G £B der denote X- What is meant by parsing a w«rd .< 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



13 



LESSON II. 

OP ADJECTIVES. An adjective is a word added to a noun, 
to express some quality, or circumstance of the thing for 
which the noun stands. 

Adjectives have, commonly, no modification but comparison. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective, to express quality in different 
degrees ; as new, newer, newest. 

There are three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, 
and the superlative. 

Rule 1 . Every adjective belongs to some noun expressed or un- 
derstood. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the nou,n as in the preceding lesson) f« 
pmrse the Adjective in connexion with the noun, and to apply Rule 1. 



Large ships 
<xreen trees 
Black clouds 



are seen, 



Sour grapes 
Hipe apples 
Sweet plums 



Sweet fragrance 
Delightful odour 
Rich perfume 

Deep sorrow 
Ecstatic Pleasure 
Greatest fear 



are tasUd. 



Softer music 

Distant thunder V is heard. 

Loud laughter ) 



\ 



is smelted- 



is felt 



Future events 
Celestial regions 
Endless miseries 



are conceived of. 



QUESTIONS. 

What is an ADJECTIVE ?— Have adjectives any properties ?— What modifications have they ? 
—How many degrees of comparison are there?— What are they called ?— What rule do you give 
when you parae an adjective ? 



14 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON III. 

OF ARTICLES. An article is a word prefixed to nouns, 
and pronouns, to limit their signification. 

There are two articles — The is called the definite article, a 
or an the indefinite. 

An and a are one and the same article. An, is used when the following 
word begins with a vowel sound ; as an urn, an hour ; and a when the fol- 
lowing word begins with a consonant sound; as a meadow, a horse, &c. 



Rule 2. 
tion. 



The article refers to its noun (or pronoun) in limita- 



EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the noun and adjective as in the preced- 
ing lesson) y to parse the Articles, and to give Rule 2. 



1 



The largest vessels 
The tallest forests 
The brilliant stars 

The choicest fruits 
The ripest melons 
The finest wines 

A true report 
A distant sound 
A loud voice 

A sweet perfume 
A refreshing odour 
A delightful incense 

An acute pain 
An eager joy 
An ardent wish 

The celestial spheres 
The highest heavens 
The acutest pains 

QXTESTIOSTS. 



are seen. 



are tasted. 



f is heard. 



is smelted. 



is felt. 



► are conceived of. 



What is an ARTICLE ?— How many articles are there ?— Which is called the definite ?— Which 
is called the indefinite ?— In what cases is a used ?— When is an used ?— What rule do you give 
when you parse an article ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 15 

LESSON IV. 

OF VERBS. A verb is a part of speech which signifies 
action, (beino or suffering.) 

An active verb denotes action, either of matter or mind. 

Of Case. Case is the condition or situation of the noun in relation to 
other words in the sentence. 

Nouns have three cases, viz. the nominative, the possessive, and the ob- 
jective. 

The nominative case to an active verb denotes the doer of the action. 

Rule 3. A verb must agree with its nominative case in num- 
ber and person. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the article, adjective, and noun as in the 
preceding lessen) to tell the case of the noun — distinguish the active verb, give its person and number, 
its agreement with its nominative, and apply Rule 3. 

A brave soldier fights — 

A valiant chieftain conquers — 

The worthless coward trembles — 

An honest tradesman prospers — 

An industrious pupil studies — 

A true friend reproves — 

The aged veteran totters — 

The wisest men err — 

The lonely captive mourns — 

The imprudent youth suffers — 

The furious lion roars — 

The awful thunders roll — 

The smallest birds sing — 

A modest female blushes — 

An artful culprit begs — 

The wilful sinner dies — 

An idle student plays — 

A careless reader blunders — 

The angry tempest rages — 

The foaming billows dash — 

The active farmer thrives — 

The pupil should be required to repeat the rule applicable to each part of speech as often as it off- 
curs in the exercises, for the -purpose of rendering its application familiar. 

CIUESTIOIVS. 

What is a VERB ?— What is an active VERB ?— What is CASE ?— How many cases have 
Nouns ?— What does the Nominative Case to an aetivz verb denote ?~ What rule do you give 
when you parse a verb ? 



16 



EXERCISES IN 



LESSON V. 

OF PARTICIPLES. A participle is a word derived from 
a verb, partaking of the nature of a verb and of an adjective. 

The present participle is formed by adding ing, or ning to the, present 
tense of a verb ; as, 

Speak — speaking — fly — flying — go — going — run — running. 

OF ADVERBS. An adverb shows the manner, the time, 
or the place, in which an action is done, when added to a verb, 
or to a participle. 

Adverbs have no properties ; but they are of different kinds: as, of man- 
ner, time, place, &c. 

Rule 4. Jldverbs qualify verbs and participles. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In zvkich it is required of the pupil (in addition to parsing the article, adjective^ noun, and ecetive 
verb,) to distinguish the Adverb, point out the word it qualifies, and apply Rule 4. 

The angry waves dash violently 
The heavenly bodies revolve steadily 
The small bird sings sweetly 
A prudent person speaks cautiously 
A good servant labours faithfully 
A large stream flows rapidly 
A swift horse trots nimbly 
An old man walks slowly 



> manner. 



A brave general embarks to-day 
The old ship arrived yesterday 
An able statesman speaks to-night 
An industrious student improves daily 

A large army encamped here 
The stoutest yeomen march hither 
A wealthy farmer lives there 
The gallant stranger travels thither 



} time. 



> place. 



Rule 5. Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, (or are govern- 
ed by prepositions.) 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which the pupil (in addition to parsing the other words) will distinguish the Present Participle, 
tell what word it refers to, and apply Rule 5. 

Reading slowly, boys read correctly. 
Judging hastily, people judge erroneously. 

CtUESTIOlVS. 

What is a PARTICIPLE ?— How is the Present Participle formed ?-- What is an ADVERB ? 
—Have Adverbs any properties ?— ■ What rule do you give when you parse an adverb ?— What 
rule do you give when you parse a participle ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 17 

LESSON VI. 

HELPING ADJECTIVES AND HELPING ADVERBS. 

The words* very, quite, exceedingly, excessively, extremely, too, 
and some other words, are called helping adjectives, when 
they modify adjectives — when they modify adverbs, they are 
called helping adverbs. — Blair. 

EXAMPLES. 

Very large ships sail very rapidly. 

Quite small children read exceedingly well. 

OP PRONOUNS. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a 
Noun, to avoid the too frequent repetition of the same word. 

A personal pronoun is a kind of pronoun that shows by its form of what 
person it is. 

There are five personal pronouns ; viz. I, Thou, He, She, and It — with 
their plurals, We, Ye or You, They. 

A TABLE OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN THE THREE CASES. 







SINGULAR NUMBER 


. 


«i 


irst person. 


2d person. 




3d per. mas. 


3d per. fern. 


3d per. neu 


JVbm. I, 


Thou, 




He, 


She, 


It, 


Poss. Mine, 


Thine, 




His, 


Hers, 


Its, 


Obj. Me. 


Thee; 




Him; 


Her; 


It; 






PLURAL NUMBER. 






JVbm. We, 


Ye or You, 


They, 


They, 


They, 


Poss. Ours, 


Yours, 




Theirs, 


Theirs, 


Theirs, 


Obj. Us. 


You. 




Them. 


Them. 


Them. 



EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to decline, and parse 
the personal pronouns. 

An industrious boy studies — he learns exceedingly fast. 
A beautiful girl dances — she moves quite gracefully. 
The largest book falls — it falls very frequently. 
The young ladies sung — they sing extremely well. 
I write — thou writes^ — he writes — we read correctly. 
You walk. — They play. — We run. — They work. 

QUESTIONS. 

What is a PRONOUN ?— What is a personal pronoun ? — How many personal pronouns are 
there ? — Name them. Decline each person, in the singular and plural number. 

* These words are commonly denominated Adverbs of Degree; and 
are parsed as such under the Rule "Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, par- 
ticiples, and sometimes other adverbs." 

3 



18 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON VIL 

OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The words Who, Which, 
and That, (when That can be changed into who or which) are 
relative pronouns. 

These pronouns are called relative pronouns because they 
represent either antecedent words, or phrases. 

CASES OF THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Who is applied only to persons. 
Sin. Nom. Who, Plu. Nom. Who, 

Poss. Whose, Poss. Whose, 

Obj. Whom; Obj. Whom. 

Which is applied to animals and things. 
Sin. Nom. Which, Plu. Nom. Which, 

Poss. — Poss. 

Obj. Which; Obj. Which. 

That is applied to persons, animals, and things. 
Sin. Nom. That, Plu. Nom. That, 

Poss. Poss. 

Obj. That; Obj. That. 

When no nominative comes between the relative pronoun and the verb, 
the relative is the nominative. 

Rule 6. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents in Per- 
son, Number, and Gender. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to decline, and parse 
the relative pronouns, and apply Rule 6. 



men 



The men \who work well / labour very diligently. 

(horse — A 
which trots hard / travels very rapidly. 

(horse -\ 
that trots hard / travels very rapidly. 

/boy \ 

The boy \that reads well / speaks very slowly. 

(man \ 
who speaks to-day/ spoke here, yesterday. 

QUESTIONS. 

What words are called RELATIVE pronouns ?— -Why so called ?— Decline the relative pro- 
Boun who ?-— To what is zvho applied ?— Decline the Relative which. To what is which applied ?— * 
Decline the Relative that. To what is that applied ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 19 

LESSON VIII. 

OP INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. The words Who, 
Which, and What, when used in asking questions, are Inter- 
rogative Pronouns. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED. 

Who labours here ? Which performs best ? What floats hither ? Who 
speaks to-day ? Which came here yesterday ? Who believes sincerely ? 

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. Adjective pronouns are 
of a mixed nature, participating of the properties both of pro- 
nouns and adjectives. 

There are five kinds of Adjective Pronouns. 

The Possessive are My, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 
" Distributive are Each, every, either. 

" Demonstrative are This, that, these, those, former and latter. 
" Indefinite are Some, one, any, other, all such. 
" Interrogative are Which and what (when prefixed to nouns.) 

Rule 7. Every adjective pronoun belongs to some noun or pro- 
noun expressed or understood. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to parse the adjective 
pronouns^ and apply Rule 7. 

My pupils improve daily. Thy son studies hard. His horse trots nim- 
bly. Every child walks well. This young lady dances gracefully. That 
man speaks wisely. Some people live carelessly. Every pupil (that stu- 
dies diligently) parses fluently. He (who speaks naturally) speaks elo- 
quently. Those (who attend steadily) improve very fast. v Good men 
live happily — they die cheerfully. Who sins knowingly ? Which sings 
best ? That stream flows very rapidly. Our pupils parse exceedingly 
well. Which company meets to-day ? What officer commands here ? 

When the preceding adjective pronouns are not prefixed to nouns, 
they are parsed as pronouns merely, viz. " Demonstrative pronouns" — "In- 
definite pronouns" &c. having person, number, gender, and case. 

Q,UESTI02VS. 

What words are called INTERROGATIVE pronouns ?— What are adjective pronouns ?— How 
many kinds of adjective pronouns are there i— What are they called ?— Name the possessive- 
distributive— demonstrative— indefinite— interrogative. What are these words called when they 
are not prefixed to nouns ? 



20 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON VIII. 

OF ACTIVE-TRANSITIVE AND ACTIVE-INTRANSI- 
TIVE VERBS. An active-transitive verb expresses an action 
that effects an object. 

An active-intransitive verb expresses an action, confined to 
the actor. 

* The objective case denotes the object of a verb, (participle, or preposi- 
tion.) 

Government means the influence that one word has over another in di- 
recting its case, &c. 

Rule 8. Transitive verbs govern the objective case. 
EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it 4s required of the pupil (in addition to the Receding exercises) to distinguish the active, 
transitive, and the active intransitive verbs — parse the nouns in the objective case, and apply Rule 8. 

The base tyrant slew his friend treacherously. 
A generous man bestows his favors seasonably. 
That accomplished lady spends her time properly. 
This wealthy farmer cultivates his land thoroughly. 
Every valiant soldier performs his duty promptly. 
A profligate prince burdens the poor needlessly. 
An indulgent master governs his servants easily. 
Our generous commander pardoned him instantly. 
My noble companion releived them effectually. 
Each worthy member performs his part cheerfully. 

The young girl reads* 
A correct scholar speaks 
That aged veteran hears 
A careless penman writes 
The new vessel sails 
Those little birds fly 
A wide stream flows 
The mail coach arrives 

QUESTIONS. 

What does a TRANSITIVE VERB express ?— What does an intransitive Verb express ?— What 
does the Objective case denote ?— What is meant by government ?— What rule do you give on 
parsing a noun or pronoun, governed by a transitive verb ? 

* All active verbs are transitive when there is any person or thing ex- 
pressed or clearly implied, upon which the action terminates — when they 
do not govern such an object, they are intransitive. 



/ ii 


i correctly. 


( " 


i slowly. 


I " 


) distinctly. 


( " ' 


i badly. 




rapidly. 




i swiftly. 




\ smoothly. 




i daily. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 21 

LESSON IX. 

Rule 9. Participles have the same government, as the verbs have 
from which they are derived. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to parse the words gov- 
erned by the participles, and apply Rule 9. 

The farmer caught the boy stealing his apples. We saw the^ stranger 
writing a letter. The officers arrested the man carrying off goods. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. A Conjunction is a word that is 
chiefly used to connect sentences, so as out of two, or more 
sentences, to make but one : it sometimes connects only words. 

Conjunctions are of two kinds, Copulative and disjunctive. 
Copulative — and, if, both, that, then, since, for, because, therefore. 
Disjunctive — but, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, notwithstanding. 

Note 1. The conjunctions and, or, nor, and as, are used for connecting 
ivords, as well as sentences. 

The other conjunctions are chiefly used for connecting sentences ; or 
members of compound sentences. 

Note 2. A simple sentence contains but one verb, and a noun, or a pro- 
noun with which that verb agrees as its nominative ; as, " the heavenly 
bodies revolve steadily." 

A compound sentence contains two or more simple sentences ; as, "Time 
flies swiftly" and " death approaches" 

Rule 10. Nouns and Pronouns connected by conjunctio7is must 
be in the same case. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the exercises in the preceding lessons) to parse 
the conjunction — point out its office in connecting words and sentences, and apply Rule 10. 

He and she saw the transaction. My friend knows him and her. He 
or she wrote this letter. The officer arrested him or his neighbour. He 
rides and walks alternately. They read or write continually. The farmer 
bought and cultivated the land. 

The snow falls very fast and the storm rages violently. 

My neighbour resides here or he gave false information. 

Your son improves fast because he studies diligently. 

Our pupils write badly but they read correctly. 

CIUESTIOJVS. 

What is a CONJUNCTION ? — How many kinds of Conjunctions are there? — What are they 
called? — Repeat the Copulative. Repeat the Disjunctive. Name the Conjunctions that are 
used for connecting single words. What constitutes a simple sentence ? — What constitutes a 
compound sentence ? — What rule do you give for the Conjunction ? — What rule do you give on 
parsing a noun or pronoun, governed by a participle f 



22 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON X. 

OF PREPOSITIONS. Prepositions serve to connect words, 
and show the relation between them. 

A list of the principal prepositions. Above, against, about, after, amidst, 
across, among, athwart, at — behind, below, before, beside, beneath, between, 
betwixt, beyond, by — concerning — down, during — except— for, from — in, into 
— near — of, on or upon, over — round or around — since — through, throughout, 
till, touching, toward — under, underneath, up — withi.i, without — out oj — 
over against — next to — according to — instead of, and some other words. 

Note, When the preceding words do not govern the objective case of 
nouns or pronouns, they become adverbs, conjunctions, &c. 

Rule 11. Prepositions govern the objective case. 
EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In whicK it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to purse the prepositions — 
nouns, fyc. governed by them — and to apply Rule 11. 

They confided in him. He spoke unto them in parables. They call- 
ed upon her in person. The mast fell athwart the ship. He walked with 
me by moonlight. My friends reside beyond the mountain. The fleet sail- 
ed down the river. He stands above me. The man lives over the store. 
The General marched on that day against the enemy. The stranger 
passed up the hill, near the fort, and he saw a vast plain below him. He 
walked before me for the space of an hour. His friends followed after him 
during the day, and on the next morning, they found him behind a cabin 
in the forest. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. The interjection simply express- 
es some sudden emotion of the mind. It has no connexion 
with the sentence, nor any properties belonging to it. The 
principal Interjections, are, Ah ! ! Alas ! Fie ! Poh ! &c. 

When a nominative comes between the relative and the verb, the relative 
must be in the possessive case, and governed by the following noun, or in 
the objective, and governed by the following verb or some participle, or 
preposition, in its own member of the sentence. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED. 

86 9 7 3 2145 

Whom ye ignorantly worship him declare I unto you. 
J lost a book yesterday which my friend found to-day. 
The farm which you bought I improved many years. 
The gentleman whose house you built lives very genteely. 
The person whose name you mention left town yesterday. 

aUESTIOKS. 

What is a PREPOSITION f — What is meant by the government of a word ?— What is an IN- 
TERJECTION ? 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



23 



LESSON XL 

OF THE POSSESSIVE CASE. The possessive case de- 
motes the possession of property. 

* The possessive case of nouns, in the singular number, is formed by 
adding an apostrophe, followed by an s, thus (\s) to the nominative ; and 
in the f plural number, when the noun ends in 5, by adding an apostrophe 
only. 

THE THREE CASES OF NOUNS. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. * Man, Nom. Men, 

Poss. Man's, Poss. Men's, 

Obj. Man; Obj. Men. 

Nom. Woman, Nom. Women, 

Poss. Woman's, Poss. Women's, 

Obj. Woman; Obj. Women. 



Nom. Eagle, 

Poss. Eagle's, 

Obj. Eagle; 

Nom. Deer, 

Poss. Deer's, 

Obj. Deer; 



Nom. Eagles, 
Poss. fEagles'j 
Obj. 



Eagles. 



Nom. Deer, 

Poss. Deer's, (or s') 

Obj. Deer. 



Rule 12. A noun or a pronoun, in the possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the noun it possesses. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish the nouns 
and pronouns in the possessive case — point out their government, and apply Rule 12. 

X Charles's resignation filled all Europe with astonishment. The offi- 
cer's conduct destroyed all hopes of success. He doubts the gentleman's 
integrity. A friend bears a friend's infirmities. The deepest sorrow prey- 
ed upon that amiable lady's mind. She rang for her child, and in its in- 
fantine caresses, she forgot her misery. His opinion coincides with mine 

" . His performance deserves no commendation but hers " does. 

QUESTIONS. 

What does the possessive case denote ? — Flow is the possessive case formed ? — How is the pos- 
sessive case formed in the plural, when the singular and plural are spelled alike in the nomin- 
ative f — How is the singular of proper names ending in s, formed ? — How is a noun inthe posses- 
sive case governed? — Decline the nouns, man, woman, eagle, and deer. 

X Proper names ending in 5, in the singular number, form the possessive, 
by the addition of the apostrophic s ('*) to the nominative ; as, ThomasV 
almanack, Niles's Register. 



24 EXERCISES IN 

LESSON XIL 
EXERCISES TO BE PARSED, 

Containing all the parts of speech. 

Religious intolerance drove our fathers from their native country. They 
sought an asylum in the trackless wilds of America. Here, in voluntary 
exile, they lived free. Here, they worshipped their God according to the 
dictates of their own consciences. To them liberty appeared more lovely 
in her wild mountains, than tyranny ( " ) in his gaudy palaces. From 
such men we originated. They instilled into the minds of their children, 
a love of that liberty ( " " " " " " " " " ) a hatred of that 
tyranny. They cherished independence of mind in their offspring, and 
( " ^entwined it so firmly with their existence, that it grew with their 
growth, and ( " ) " strengthened with their strength." 

Two centuries rolled on — the wilderness blossomed like ( " ) the 
rose ; and our free and happy colonists soon increased to the number of 
three millions. About that time Great Britain commenced a system of 
oppressive taxation. This measure aroused their indignation. They con- 
sidered taxation and representation as inseparable ( " ). In parliament 
they had no voice — and, therefore, they resolved on freedom or death. 
Ah! then came the "tug of war!" But the wisdom, ( " " ) valor, and 
( " ) example of the illustrious Washington, inspired a band of hardy 
heroes, who (rising in defence of their wives, ( " ) their children, and 
( " ) their homes,) led us from bondage to freedom, and ( " ) secur- 
ed, to the nation, a glorious independence. 

We now enjoy the fruits of the labours, ( " " " ) toils, and ( " " ) 
cruelties which our fathers suffered. Cities, ( " ) towns, and villages 
spring up in the forest. The wilderness becomes a garden. Peace and 
plenty, hand in hand, wander through our happy vallies and ( " ) sport 
upon our mountains. The wealth of distant nations pours into our lap ; 
and our enterprise explores every section of the globe. 

"The food (that nourishes the body) contains the elements of its decay — 
the soul (that animates it by a vivifying fire) tends to wear it out by its 
action. Death lurks in ambush along all our paths." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 25 

OP THE MOODS AND TENSES. 

Mood is a particular form of the verb, showing the manner in which 
the being, action, or passion, is represented. There are five ; viz. the In- 
dicative, Subjunctive, Potential, infinitive, and Imperative. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates, or declares a thing. 

Of Tense. Tense is a distinction of Time. The Indicative Mood has 
six tenses; viz. — the Present, the Imperfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, 
the First, and the Second Future Tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event, as passing at the time 
in which it is mentioned. 

The Imperfect Tense represents an action either as past or finished, or 
as remaining unfinished at a certain time past. 

The Perfect Tense not only refers to w T hat is past, but also conveys an 
allusion to the present time. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a thing not only as past, but also as 
prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence. 

The First Future Tense represents the action as yet to come, either 
with or without respect to the precise time. 

The Second Future Tense intimates that the action will be fully ac- 
complished, at or before the time of another future action or event. 

Of Conjugation. Conjugation literally means, uniting a Verb to its 
Nominative case, of different numbers and persons, in the Moods and 
Tenses. 

Verbs are called regular when their Imperfect Tense, and Perfect Par- 
ticiple are formed by adding to the Present Tense ed, or d only when 
the verbs end in e. All other verbs are Irregular. 

EXAMPLES OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Present Tense. Imperfect Tense. Perfect Participle. 

I walk, I walked, walked. 

I learn, I learned, learned. 

EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Present Tense. Imperfect Tense. Perfect Participle. 

I go, I went, gone. 

I break, I broke, broken. 

I find, I found, found. 

The following is a list of the irregular verbs, as they are now generally 
used. Those marked with the letter r, admit also of the regular form. 

QXESTIOIVS. 

What is Mood?— How many Moods are there ?— How does the indicative mood represent an 
action or event ?— What is the meaning of Tense?— How many Tenses are there ?— Give a defini- 
tion of each. What is meant by Conjugation,?— What verbs are called regular ?— What verbs arr 
called irregular ? 

4 



2i 



EXERCISES IN 



Present. 

I abide, 
I am, 
I bear, 
I beat, 
I begin, 
J bend, 
I beseech, 
Ibid, 
I bind, 
I bite, 
I bleed, 
I blow, 
I break,'' 
I breed, 
I bring, 
I build, 
I burst, 
I buy, 
I cast, 
I catch, 
I chide, 
I choose, 
I cling, 
I come, 
I cost, 
I creep, 
I cut, 
I deal, 
I dig, 
I do, 
I draw, 
I dream, 
I drive, 
I drink, 
I dwell, 
I eat, 
I fall, 
I feed, 
I fee], 
I light, 
I find, 
I flee, 



Imper. 

I abode, 
I was, 
I bore, 
I beat, 
I began, 
I bent, r 
I besought, 
I bade, 
I bound, 
I bit, 
I bled, 
I blew, 
I broke, 
I bred, 
I brought, 
I built, r 
I burst, 
I bought, 
I cast, 
I caught, r 
I chid, 
I chose, 
I clung, 
I came, 
I cost, 
I crept, r 
I cut, 
I dealt, r 
I dug, r 
I did, 
I drew, 
I dreamt, r 
I drove, 
I drank, 
I dwelt, r 
I ate, 
I fell, 
I fed, 
I felt, 
I fought, 
I found, 
I fled, 



Per/. Part. 

abode. 

been. 

borne. 

beaten. 

begun. 

bent, r 

besought, 

bidden. 

bound. 

bitten. 

bled. 

blown. 

broken. 

bred. 

brought. 

built, r 

burst. 

bought, 

cast. 

caught, r 

chidden. 

chosen. 

clung. 

come. 

cost. 

crept. 

cut. 

dealt, r 

dug, r 

done. 

drawn. 

dreamt. 

driven. 

drunk. 

dwelt, r 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought. 

found. 

fled. 



Present. „ 

fling, 

fly, 

forsake, 

freeze, 

get, 

gild, 

gird, 

give, 

g°, 

grind, 

grow, 

hang, 

have, 

hear, 

hide, 

hit, 

hold, 

hurt, 

kneel, 

knit, 

know, 

lade, 

lay, 

lead, 

leave, 

lend, 

let, 

lie, 

lose, 

make, 

mean, 

meet, 

pay, 

put, 

quit, 

read, 

reave, 

rend, 

rid, 

ride, 

ring, 

rise, 



Imper. 

flung, 

flew, 

forsook, 

froze, 

got, 

gilt, r 

girt, r 

gave, 

went, 

ground, 

grew, 

hung, r 

had, 

heard, 

hid, 

hit, 

held, 

hurt, 

knelt, r 

knit, r 

knew, 

laded, 

laid, 

led, 

left, 

lent, 

let ? 

lay, 

lost, 

made, 

meant, r 

met, 

paid, 

put, 

quit, r 

read, 

reft, r 

rent, 

rid, 

rode, 

rang, 

rose, 



Per/, Part. 

flung. 

flown. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

got. 

gilt, r 

girt, r 

given. 

gone. 

ground. 

grown. 

hung, r 

had. 

heard. 

hidden. 

hit. 

held. 

hurt. 

knelt, r 

knit, r 

known. 

laden. 

laid. 

led. 

left. 

lent. 

let. 

lain. 

lost. 

made. 

meant, r 

met. 

paid. 

put. 

quit, r 

read. 

reft, r 

rent. 

rid. 

ridden, 

rung. 

risen. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



21 



Present. 


Imper. 


Per/. Part. 


Present. 


Imper 


Per/. Pan 


I run, 


I ran, 


run. 


I split, 


I split, 


split, 


Isay, 


I said, 


said. 


I spread, 


I spread, 


spread, 


I see, 


I saw, 


seen. 


I spring, 


I sprang, 


sprung. 


I seek, 


I sought, 


sought. 


I stand, 


I stood, 


stood. 


I sell, 


I sold, 


sold. 


I steal, 


I stole, 


stolen. 


I send, 


I sent, 


sent. 


I stick, 


I stuck, 


stuck. 


I set, 


I set, 


set. 


I sting, 


I stung, 


stung. 


1 shake, 


I shook, 


shaken* 


I stride, 


I strode, 


stridden. 


I shed, 


I shed, 


shed. 


I strike, 


I struck, 


struck. 


I shine, 


I shone, r 


shone, r 


I string, 


I strung, r 


strung, r 


I shoe, 


I shod, 


shod. 


I strive, 


I strove, r 


striven, ? 


I show, 


I showed, 


shown. 


I swear, 


I swore, 


sworn. 


I shoot, 


I shot, 


shot. 


I sweep, 


I swept, 


swept. 


I shut, 


I shut, 


shut. 


I swim, 


I swam, 


swum. 


I shred, 


I shred, 


shred. 


I swing, 


I swung, 


swung. 


I shrink, 


I shrunk, 


shrunk. 


I take, 


I took, 


taken. 


I sing, 


I sang, 


sung. 


I teach, 


I taught, 


taught. 


I sink, 


I sunk, 


sunk. 


I tear, 


I tore, 


torn. 


I sit, 


I sat, 


sat. 


1 tell, 


I told, 


told. 


i slay, 


I slew, 


slain. 


I think, 


I thought, 


thought. 


I sleep, 


I slept, 


slept. 


I throw, 


I threw, 


thrown. 


I slide, 


I slid, 


slidden. 


I thrust, 


I thrust, 


thrust. 


I sling, 


I slung, 


slung, 


I tread, 


I trod, 


trodden. 


I slink, 


I slunk, 


slunk. 


I wear, 


I wore, 


worn. 


I slit, 


I slit, r 


slit, r 


I weave, 


I wove, 


woven. 


I smite, 


I smote, 


smitten. 


I weep, 


I wept, r 


wept, r 


I speak, 


I spoke, 


spoken. 


I win, 


I won, 


won. 


I speed, 


I sped, 


sped. 


I wind, 


I wound, r 


wound. 


I spend, 


I spent, 


spent. 


I wont, 


I wont, r 


wont, r 


I spill, 


I spilt, r 


spilt, r 


I work, 


I wrought 


rwrought, r 


I spin, 


I spun, 


spun. 


I wring, 


I wrung, 


wrung. 


T spit, 


I spit 


spit. 


I write, 


I wrote, 


written. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

A defective verb is a verb which wants some of the principal parts, 

All the auxiliaries, except do, be, and have, are defective. 

The following is a list of the defective verbs. 

Present. Imperfect. 

May, might, 

Can, could, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

Shall, should, 

Will, would, 

Quoth. quoth. 



Perfect Participles: 
are wanting,. 



28 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a de- 
fective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person 
singular 3 thus, 





Singular. 






I, 


Thou, 


Present 


May, 


May-st, 


Imperfect Might, 


Mights, 


Pres. 


Can, 


Can-sf, 


Imper. 


Could, 


Could-sf, 


Pres. 


Shall, 


ShaR, 


Imper. 


Should, 


Should-st, 


Pres. 


Will, 


Wil-f, 


Imper. 


Would, 


Would-sf, 


Pres. 


Have, 


Has-f, 


Imper. 


Had, 


Had-tf, 


Present / 


> 




*r 


> Ought, 


Oaght-est, 


Imper. 


> 







Plural. 


He, We, Ye 


or You, They 


May, 


May, , 


Might, 


Might, 


Can, | 


Can, 


Could, 


Could, 


Shall, 


Shall, 


Should, 


Should, 


Will, 


Will, 


Would, 


Would, 


PI as, 


Have, 


Had, 


Had, 


Ought, 


Ought. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

This Diagram is divided into six squares, to represent the six tenses of the Indicative Mood. The 
first square represents the present tense, and the second the imperfect. These being simple tenses, 
formed without the aid of auxiliaries, the squares representing them, contain nothing but the pro- 
nouns with which, in conjugating, the verb, write, and its imperfect tense, zvrote, are to be united ; 
thus, 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Sin. Num. 
I write, 
Thou writ-est, 
He write-s ; 

Sin. Num. 
I wrote, 
Thou wrote-st, 
He wrote ; 



Present Tense. 



Imperfect Tense. 



Plu. Num. 
We write, 
Ye or you write, 
They write. 

Plu. Num. 
We wrote, 
Ye or you wrote, 
They wrote. 



Perfect participle written. 

The 3d square represents the perfect tense ; the signs of which are have and its variations. 

The perfect tense is formed by prefixing the sign, have, hast or has, to the perfect participle (zvrit- 
ten) as is indicated by a line of reference connecting the former with the latter — forming the 
phrases, J have written — Thou hast written — He has written, fyc. 

The 4th square represents the pluperfect tense ; the signs of which are had and its variation. 

The pluperfect tense is formed by prefixing the sign, had or hadst, to the perfect participle 
(written) as is indicated by a line of reference connecting the former with the latter — forming the 
phrases, I had zuritten — Thou hadst written — He had written, fyc. 

The 5th square represents the first future tense; the signs of which are shall and will and their 
variations. 

The first future tense is formed by prefixing the sign, shall or will, shalt or wilt, to the pres- 
ent tense of the verb (x&rite) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the 
latter— forming the phrases, / shall or will write — Thou shalt or wilt write — He shall or will zvrite, fyc. 

The 5th square represents the second future tense, the signs of which are shall have and will have 
and their variations. 

The second future tenss is formed by prefixing these signs shall have and zoill have to the perfect 
participle (written) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the latter — 
forming the phrases, / shall have written — Thou wilt have written— He will have zvritten, Sfc. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or declares a thing. 



29 




EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil, in parsing the verbs, to tell whether they are regular, or 
irregular — whether they are transitive or intransitive — give the mood and tense, number and per' 
son of each, and its agreement with its nominative, fyc, 

I write. Thou writest. We write. Ye write. They write. She writes. 
The girl writes. Your son writes elegantly. His pupils write daily. I 
wrote. Thou wrotest. He wrote. We wrote. Y~ou wrote. They wrote. 
The boy wrote yesterday. The clerk wrote the letter. I have written a 
Jetter. Thou hast written before. He has written repeatedly. We have 
written our copies. You have written enough. I had written before 
you saw him. Thou hadst written in the new book. He had written 
many letters. We had written our exercises. Ye had written ten pa- 
ges. I shall write to-morrow. Thou wilt write again. He will write to 
you. We shall write to them. Ye will write to your friends. They will 
write immediately. I shall have written ten letters by to-morrow noon. 
TJaou wilt have finished thy work. He will have completed his engage- 
ment. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the indicative mood express an action or event?— How many tenses has il? — What 
are they called ?- -What are the signs of the perfect tense? — How is it formed ?— What are the 
signs of the pluperfect ? — How is it formed ? --What are the si^ns of the. fir^r future? — How is it 
formed? — What are the signs of the second future? — How is it foimed? — How many of these* 
tenses express past time 1 — How many futnre ?— Conjugate the verb write 9 through the tenses. 



S 



so 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a de- 
fective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person sin- 
gular*, thus, 



Singular. 






Plural. 


I, 


Thou, 


He, 


We Ye or You, They 


Present May, 


May-sf, 


Mav, 


May, 


Imperfect Mi^ht, 


Might-s*, 


Might, 


Might, 


Pres, Can, 


Can-s<, 


Can, 


Can, 


Imper. C >uld, 


Could-s*, 


Should, 


Could, 


Pres Shall. 


Shal-*, 


Shall, 


Shall, 


Imper. Should, 


Should-s^, 


Should, 
Will, 


Should, 


P.-es. Will, 


Wi)-«, 


Will, 


Imper. Would, 


Would-s*, 


Would, 


Would. 


Pres. Have, 


Has-* 


Has, 


Have, 


Imper. Had, 


Had-sf, 


Had, 


Had, 


Present 1 

$• \ Ought. 
Imper ) 


Ought-s<, 


Ought. 


Ought 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAMS ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

This Diagram is divided into six squares, to represent the six tenses of the subjunctive mood 
The names of these tenses are like those of the indicative •, viz. the present, the imperfect, the per- 
fect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. Each tense has the same sign, or signs, and 
is formed in the same manner as its correspondent tense in the indicative mood. 

The principal difference between the conjugation of a verb in the indicative mood, and in the 
subjunctive, in the present tense, consists in the latter' s being always preceded by a conjunction 
expressing a doubt, motive, wish or supposition (as is indicated by the list of conjunctions given 
on the left of the diagram,) and wben futurity is denoted, in the verb's not varying its termination 
in the second and third person singular, as it does in the indicative. 

When the verb has no reference to future time, but simply expresses a doubt, motive, wish, &c. 
though in the subjunctive mood, it varies on account of the person of its uominative as it does in 
the indicative-, and is conjugated thus, 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD INDICATIVE FORM. 
Present Tense* 
Sin. Num. 
If I study, 
If thou ^tudiest, 
If he studies ; 



Plu. Num. 

If we study, 

If ye or you study, 

If they study. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD ELIPTICAL FORM.* 
Present Tense. 



Sin Num. 
If I stndy, 
If thou study, 
If he study. 



Plu. Num. 

If we study, 

If ye or you study, 

If they study. 



The remaining tenses of the subjunctive mood are conjugated like the corresponding tenses of 
the indicative mood, except, that a conjuction expressing a doubt, motive, &c. is used before the 
verb •, and, that will and wilt, are not used in forming the second future tense. 



* Before this firm of the subjunctive mood, some auxiliary i> understood; as in the following 



examples—" If I study,' 
study." 



e. " If I (shjuld) study"— 4 ' If thou study," i. e. «• If thou (shouldst) 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



81 



The Subjunctive Mood represents a thing under a condition, mo- 
tive, wish, or supposition. 




EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish the 
verbs, in the subjunctive mood— conjugate them, and explain the difference between the subjunctive 
mood and the indicative. 

He will study if 1 require it. Thou wilt study if I give ( " ) thee 
a book. We shall go if the stage arrive in season. We shall leave 
town to-morrow unless it storm. I shall go without him unless he come 
soon. On condition that he come I will consent to his proposal. He 
will maintain his argument, though he lose his reputation. He will gain 
admission if he pass the guard. He will punish his enemies though 
they despise his power. 

If he desire it, I will perform the operation. Though he slay me, 
yet will I trust in him. Though he excels her in knowledge, she ex- 
ceeds him in virtue. I will support him if he conduct honourably. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the subjunctive »ood express an action or event ?— How many tenses has if— What 
are they called ?--Does the present tense of the subjunctive mood differ from the presenttense of 
the indicative ?-In what particular does it differ ?— Does it differ from the indicative in 'he imper- 
fect tense?— What are the signs of the perfect, pluperfect, first and second future tenses of the 
subjunctive mood? --How is each tense formed ?— In what particular does the formation of the sec- 
ond luture tense differ from that of the indicative?— What conjunctions -re used in forming- vhe 
subjunctive mood 7— Conjugate the verb study, through all the tenses of the subjunctive mood- 



32 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a de- 
fective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person sin- 
gular; thus, 



Present 
Imperfect 
Pres. 
fmper. 
Pres. 
Imper, 
Pres. 
Imper. 
Pres. 
Imper. 
Present ) 
and > 
Imper. ) 



Singular. 
% 

May, 
Might, 
Can 
Could, 
Shall, 
Should, 
Will, 
Would, 
Have, 
Had, 

Ought, 



Thou, 

tMay-s/, 

Might-si, 

Can-si, 

Could- si, 

Shal t, 

Should-si, 

Wil-i, 

Would- si, 

Has-i, 

Had-si, 

Qught-esi, 



He, 

May, 

Might, 

Can, 

Could, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will, 

Would, 

Has, 

Had, 

Ought, 



Plural. 
We, Ye or You, They 
May, 
Might, 
Can, 
Could, 
Shall, 
Should, 
Will, 
Would, 
Have, 
Had, 

Ought, 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

This Diagram is divided into four squares, to represent the four tenses of the Potential Mood . 
The 1st represents the present tense ; the 2d, the imperfect-, the 3d, the perfect*, and the 4th, the 

pluperfect. 

The signs of the present tense, are may and can, and their variations. 

-The present tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the sign may or can, to the verb 
(strike) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the latter — forming 
the* phrases — I may or can strike — Thou may est or canst strike — He may or can strike, fyc. 

The signs of the imperfect tense are might, could, would, and should, and their variations. 

The imperfect tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the sign might, could, would, 
or should, to the verb (strike) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with 
the latter — forming the phrases—/ might, could, would, or should write — Thou mightst, couldsi 
wouldst, or shouldst write—He might, could, would, or should write, fyc. 

The signs of the pefect tense, are may or can have, and their variations. 

The perfect tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the signs may or can have, to the 
perfect participle (struck) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the 
latter — forming the phrases —I may or can have struck — Thou may est or canst have struck— He may 
or can have struck, <^c. 

The signs of the pluperfect tense, are might, could, would, or should have, and their variations. 

The pluperfect tense of the potential mood is formed by prefixing the signs, might, could, would, 
or should have, to the perfect participle (struck) as is indicated by the line of reference connect- 
ing the former with the latter- torming the phrases— J might, could, would, or should have struck — 
Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have struck — He might, could, would, or should have 
struck, ^-c. 



Shall and will, when they denote inclination, resolution, or promise, may be considered, as well 
as f heir variations should and would, as belonging to the potential mood. But as they genarally 
signify futurny, they have been appropriated, as helping verbs, to the formation of the future tens- 
es of the indicative and subjunctive moods* 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



33 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The Potential Mood implies possibility, or liberty, power, will, or 
obligation. It has four tenses. 




EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In whieh it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding" exercises) to distinguish, 
parse, and conjugate the several verbs, in the potential mood. 

I may strike thee. Thou canst strike the man. He may strike the 
soldier. We can strike them again. You may strike him. They may 
strike the boys. I might strike them together. Thou couldst strike 
the man's dog. He would strike him — We would strike thee — Ye 
might strike them — They might strike us — I may have struck the 
wrong person — Thou mayest have struck — He may have struck his 
antagonist. I might have struck my enemy. Thou mightst have 
struck the master. He might have struck the soldier. My friend 
writes letters very often. He wrote many letters to his friends. 1 will 
attend if he require it. Thou wilt hurt thyself, if thou injure him. He 
acts uprightly unless he deceives me. We shall arrive by noon unless 
it rain. 1 will trust in him, though he slay me. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the Potential Mood express an action or event? — How many tenses has the potential 
mood? — What are they called? — Wnat are the signs of the present tense?— How is the present 
tense of the potential mood formed 1 — What are the signs of the imperfect tense ? — How is it 
formed?--What are the signs of the perfect tense? — How is it formed? — What are the signs of 
the pluperfect tense? — How is it formed? — Conjugate the verb strike through all the tenses of the 
potential mood. 



34 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a de- 
fective verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person sin- 
gular; thus, 





Singular. 






I, 


Thou, 


Present 


May, 


May-sZ, 


Imperfect 


Might, 


Might-st, 


Present 


Can, 


Can-si, 


Imperfect 


Could, 


Gould st, 


Present 


Shall 


Shal-«, 


Imperfect 


Should, 


Should-s£, 


Present 


Will, 


Wil-«, 


Imperfect 


Would 


Would-s*, 


Present 


Have, 


Has-*, 


Imperfect 


Had, 


Had-s*, 


Present 


> Ought, 


Ought-es*, 


Imperfect 


) 





He, 

U ay ' 

Might, 

Can, 

Could, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will, 

Would, 

Has, 

Had, 

Ought, 



Plural. 
We, Ye or You, They. 

May, 

Might, 

Can, 

Cculd, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will. 

Would* 

Have, 

Had, 

Ought. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

This Diagram is divided into two squares, to represent the tenses of the Infinitive Mood. The 
first square represents the present tense, which is formed by prefixing to, the sign of the infinitive 
mood, to the verb (go) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the lat- 
ter — forming the phrase, to go. 

The second square represents the perfect tense, which is formed by prefixing to have to the per- 
fect participle (gone) as is indicated by the line of reference connecting the former with the latter 
—forming the phrase, to have gone. 

When a verb in the infinitive mood follows make, need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, say, know, 
have, observe, behold, perceive, or their participles, the sign to is omitted ; as, Intake him study.— I 
bade him do it. 

Exceptions. The sign To is sometimes employed after needs, know, have, &c. as in the follow- 
ing examples, and some others. 

" Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 

As to be hated needs but to be seen." — Pope. 

" One needs no more than to observe how strongly we are touched by mere pictures.'* The use 
of to after need is frequent among the best writers, especially, when there are any intervening 
words. Have, denoting possession or obligation, is generally followed by to ; as, " I have to 
write daily" — " I had to do this." When have implies volition, to is generally omitted ; as, 
" Would they have us reject so good an offer?" 

The infinitive mood is often made absolute, or used independently on the rest of the sentence, sup- 
plying the place of the conjunction that, with the potential mood; as,*' To confess the truth, I was 
in fault," "To begin with the first;" * To proceed;" " To conclude ;" that is, "That I may 
♦Confess," &c. 



ETYMOLOGF AND SYNTAX. 



35 



INFINITIVE MOOD. 

The Infinitive Mood expresses an action or event, in a general and 
unlimited manner, without regard to number, or person. It has but 
two tenses ; viz. the present and the perfect. 




Rule 13. The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, 
adjective, or participle. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to the preceding- exercises,) to distinguish, conju- 
gate, and parse, the several verbs, in the infinitive mood, and to apply Rule 13. 

He promised to go immediately. They intended to destroy their 
enemies. He ought to embrace the first opportunity. The boy ought 
to have studied grammar earlier. She expects to see her friends from 
the country. No person can expect to improve without application. 
We see many persons conduct themselves very foolishly. He will not 
let the people go. He made each man perform his duty. He saw the 
fleet enter the harbour. He began to figure to himself the miseries of 
confinement. She resolved to do good and to avoid evil, without re- 
gard to the opinions of men. I dare say he will arrive in season. 

QUESTIONS. 

How does the infinitive mood express an action or event ? - How many tenses has it ? — What 
are they called?- -What is called the sign of the infinitive mood? — Wha. are the signs of the per- 
fect tense? — How is the present tense of the infinitive mood formed? —How is the perfect tense 
formed? —Is the sign to always prefixed to a verb in the infinitive moocf? — When'should it be 
omitted ? 



36 



EXERCISES IN 



VARIATIONS OF THE DEFECTIVE AND AUXILIARY VERBS. 
Have varies both in the second and third persons. Must has no variation. Quoth is also a defec- 
tive verb, and has no variation. The other defective verbs vary only in the second person singular ; 
thus, 



Present 

Imperfect 

Present 

Imperfect 

Present 

Imperfect 

Present 

Imperfect 

Present 

Imperfect 

Present 

Imperfect 



Singular. 




I, 


Thou, 


May, 


May-s£, 


Might, 


Might st, 


Can, 


Can-sj, 


Could, 


Could, st, 


Shall, 


Shal-*, 


Should, 


Should-si, 


Will, 


WiU, 


Would, 


Would-s«, 


Have, 


Has-2, 


Had, 


liad-st, 



Ought, 



Ought-est t 



He 

May, 

Might, 

Can, 

Could, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will, 

Would, 

Has, 

Had, 

Ought, 



Plural. 
We, Ye or You, They. 

May, 

Might, 

Can, 

Could, 

Shall, 

Should, 

Will, 

Would, 

Have, 

Had, 

Ought. 



EXPLANATION OF THE DIAGRAM ON THE RIGHT HAND PAGE. 

The Diagrams representing the Indicative.the Subjunctive, the Potential, and the Infinitive Moods, 
are subdivided to indicate the number of tenses in each mood ; viz. that for the Indicative Mood, into 
six squares, to show that, that mood has six tenses ; that for the Subjunctive, into the same number ; 
that for the Potential into four ; that for the Infinitive into two ♦, but the Imperative, having but one 
tense, the Diagram representing it, remains entire. 

As verbs vary for person and number, as well as for mood and tense, it has been thought more 
convenient and useful, (on the page opposite each Diagram) to present the verb with reference only 
to its variations for person and number, and afterwards to inculcate by means of tLe Diagrams, the 
distinctions of mood and tense. 

By these remarks it is believed that any intelligent pupil will be enabled to conjugate readily and 
under standingly the following verbs — viz. Write, in the Indicativ e&mood ; Study, in the Subjunc- 
tive ; Strike, m the Potential ; Go, in the Infinitive ; and March, in the Imperative. After which, 
he will be able to conjugate any other verb in the same manner, with fluency and correctness. 

In philosophical strictness, both number and person might be entirely excluded from every verb. 
They are in fact, the properties of nouns, not a part of the essence of a verb. Even the name of the 
Imperative Mood, does not always correspond to its nature ; for it sometimes petitions as well as 
commands. But, with respect to these points, the practice of our grammarians is so uniformly fix- 
ed, and so analogous to the languages, ancient and modern, which our youth have to study, that it 
would be an unwarrantable degree of innovation, to deviate from the established terms and arrange- 
ments. 



ETYMOLOGY \ND SYNTAX. 3 ? 

IMP ER ATIV E MOOD. 

The Imperative Moojd is nsed for commanding, exhorting, en- 
treating, or permitting. It has but o ie tense and one person ; viz: 
the present tense, and the second person. 



Present Tense 




Singular 


Plural 


March thou 

or 

Do thou march 


March ye 

or 

Do ye march 





EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding- exercises) to distinguish, conju- 
gate, and parse the several verbs in the imperative mood. 

Study ( " ) thy lesson. Study ( " ) your lessons. Go ( " ) to 
school in season. Depart ( " ) from me immediate^. Behave( " ) 
well if thou lovest virtue. Imitate ( " ) thy superiors in wisdom. 
Love ( " ) thy neighbour as thou lovest thyself. Waste ( " ) not 
thy time. Omit ( " ) no opportunity for improvement. Avoid ( " ) sin, 
if you desire to escape temptation. He can write elegantly or I have 
mistaken his exercises. Let ( " ) no man pretend to superior attain- 
ments unless he can fairly support his claims. He can excell me if he 
chooses. The man might have seen his friend if he had asked per- 
mission. Betray ( " ) not thy friends. Render ( " ) good things 
for evil ( " ). Live ( " ) properly that you may die cheerfully. 

QUESTIONS. 

How is the Imperative Mood used ? — How man)' Tensrs has it? — Is the nominative to a verb in 
this mood generally expressed 1 — How many M tods ar^ theoe 1 — How does each express an action 
or event?— How many Tenses has each mnod ? —Conjugate the verb study in the indicative, sub- 
j unctive, potential, infinitive and imperative moods •, and tell how the tenses are formed in each. 



38 



EXERCISES IN 



REMARKS ON CONJUGATION. 

Instead of the form of conjugation already given, which by way of 
distinction may be denominated the common, or simple form, we of- 
ten prefix the neuter verb be, or am, (as an auxiliary) through all its 
moods and tenses, to the present participle ; thus, I am writing — Thou 
art writing — He is writing, fyc. This may be called the participial 
form of conjugation. 

When we mean to express ourselves with energy and positiveness, 
we prefix the verb do and its variations as auxiliaries, in forming the 
present and imperfect tenses to the verb ; thus, I do write — Thou dfot 
write — He does write, fyc. This may with propriety be called the em- 
phatic form. 

EXAMPLES OF THE THREE FORMS OF COJUGATION. 



Simple Form. 



I write, 
Thou writestj 
He writes, 

We write, 
Ye write, 
They write, 



I wrote, 
Thou wrotest, 
He wrote, ( 



Participial Form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular Number. 
I am writing, 
Thou art writing, 
He is writing, 

Plural Number. 
We are writing, 
Ye are writing, 
They are writing, 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular Number. 
I was writing, 
Thou wast writing, 
He was writing, 

Plural Number. 
We were writing, 
Ye were writing 
They were writing, 



Emphatic Form. 



I do write. 
Thou dost write. 
He does write. 

We do write. 
Ye do write. 
They do write. 



I did write. 
Thou didst write, 
He did write. 



We did write. 
Ye did write. 
They did write. 



We wrote, 
Ye wrote, 
They wrote, 

Rule 14. Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same 
mood and tense, and of the same form of conjugation. 
EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

Tn which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to the preceding exercises) in parsing the verb, to 
distinguish the form of conjugation, point out the office of the conjunctions, and apply Rule 14. 

He did tell ( " ) his fault, and entreat me to forgive him. If thou 
sincerely desire, and really seek virtue, thou wilt find her. My friend 
is writing letters, and sending them abroad. He will succeed, and ob- 
tain his end. He rides or walks daily. They are pursuing their ene- 
mies, and destroying them with the sword. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



39 



A neuter verb expresses neither action, nor passion, but 
simply being, or a state of being. 

CONJUGATION OF THE NEUTER VERB, BE fOR AM.) 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 



Singular. 
I am. 
Thou art, 
He, she or it is. 



Singular. 

I was, 
Thou wast, 
He was. 



PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 

We are, 

Ye or you are, 

They are. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 

We were, 

Ye or you were, 
They were. 



PERFECT TENSE, 



Singular. 

I have been, 
Thou hast been, 
He has been. 



Plural. 

We have been, 

Ye or you have been, 

They have been. 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I had been. 
Thou hadst been, 
He had been. 



Plural. 

We had been, 

Ye or you had been, 

They had been. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 

I shall or will be, 
Thou shalt or wilt be, 
He shall or will be. 



Plural. 

We shall or will be, 

Ye or you shall or will bt, 

They shall or will be. 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall have been, We shall have been, 

Thou wilt have been, Ye or you will have been, 

He will have been. They will have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 



Present Being, — Perfect Been, — Compound Perfect Having been. 



40 



EXERCISES IN 



Indicative Form* 



Singular. 

If I am, 

If thou art, 
If he is ; 

Plural. 

If we are, 
If } r e are, 
If they are* 

Singular. 

If I was, 
If thou wast, 
If he was; 

Plural. 

If we were, 
If ye were, 
If they were. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



IMPERFECT TENSE* 



Elliptical Fornu 

Singular. 

If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he be ; 

Plural. 

If we be, 
If ye be, 
If they be. 

Singular. 

If I were, 
If thou wert, 
If he were ; 

Plural. 

If we were, 
If ye were, 
If they were. 



The remaining tenses of this mood are conjugated like the correspond- 
ent tenses of the indicative mood, excepting, that will and wilt are not 
used hi forming the second future tense. 



Singular. 

I may or can be, 

Thou may st or canst be, 

He may or can be; 



POTENTIAL MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Plural. 
We may or can be, 
Ye or you may or can be, 
They may or can be, 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should be, We might, could, would, or should be,- 

Thou mightst, couldst wouldst or Ye or you might, could, would or 

shouldst be, should be, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would or should, 

be ; be. 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I may or can have been, We may or can have been, 

Thou mayst or canst have been, Ye or you may or can have been. 

He may or can have been ; They may or can have been. 



t 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 41 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should have We might, could, would 

been, have been, '°u/d 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, woiu 

shouldst have been, should have been, 

He might, could, would or should have They might, could, would, or shomJ 

been. have been. 

INFINITIVE MOOD. 

Present tense, To be, Perfect tense, To have been. 

IMPERATIVE MOOD. 

Singular. Plural. 

Be thou, or do thou be* Be ye or you, or do ye be. 



OF PASSIVE VERBS. A Passive Verb expresses an ac- 
tion, done to its own nominative. 

To form a passive verb, prefix be, am, art, is, are, was, were, 
wast, (wert,) or been, to the Perfect Participle of a transitive 
verb. 

THE PASSIVE FORM OF THE VERB LOVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I am loved, We are loved, 

Thou art loved, Ye or you are loved. 

He is loved ; They are loved. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular* Plural. 

I was loved, We were loved, 

Thou wast loved, Ye or you were loved, 

He was loved ; They were loved. 

aUESTIOlVS. 

How many forms of conjugation are there ?— What are they called ?— How is each form- 
ed ?—(See page 38.; What is a neuter verb ?— Conjugate the neuter verb Be or Am, through the 
everal tenses of the Indicative, Subjunctive, Potential, Infinitive and Imperative Moods, and give 
its present, perfect, and compound perfect participles. 

6 



m 



EXERCISES tit 



liar. 



PERFECT TENSE. 

Plural. 
We have been loved, 
^ noi? Y Jist been loved, Ye or you have been loved, 

He hath, or has been loved ; They have been loved. 



y>en loved, 
Jasi 



PLUPERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 

I had been loved, 
Thou hadst been loved, 
He had been loved ; 



Plural. 

We had been loved, 

Ye or you had been loved, 

They had been loved. 



FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 

I shall or will be loved, 
Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 
He shall or will be loved ; 



Plural. 

We shall or will be loved. 
Ye or you shall or will be loved 
They shall or will be loved. 



Singular. 

I shalL have been loved, 
Thou wilt have been loved, 
He will have been loved ; 



SECOND FUTURE TENSE. 

Plural. 

We shall have been loved, 
Ye or you will have been loved,. 
They will have been loved. 



The Nominative to an active verb denotes the doer of the action. 

The Nominative to a neuter verb denotes merely the subject of the 
verb. 

The Nominative to a passive verb denotes the sufferer, or receiver of 
the action. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, and parse the 
passive and neuter verbs. 

The Lottery is drawn by the Manager. The manager draws the lotte- 
ry. The goods were purchased by the merchant. The merchant pur- 
chased the goods. Health is promoted by exercise. Exercise promotes 
health. The thief was taken by the officer. The officer took the thief. 
The goods were sold by the Auctioneer. The Auctioneer sold the goods. 
The house was furnished. The rogue was detected. I am in good health. 
Thou art in business. He is in Europe. We are in good company. You 
are with your friends. They are in constant employment. 



Q,UEST10]NrS. 

What is a passive verb ? — How is a passive verb formed ? — What does the nominative to an ac- 
tive verb denote ? — What does the nominative case to a passive verb denote ? — What does the 
nominative case to a neuter verb denote ?— Conjugate the verb Love in the passive form, through 
the different tenses of the several moods. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 43 

Rule 15. A Perfect Participle, unconnected with an auxiliary, 

relates to the noun or pronoun which it qualifies or describes. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, and parse 
the perfect participles, and to apply Rule 15. 

The Captain found the ship considerably injured. He discovered a 
soldier badly wounded. They left the prison strongly guarded. He met 
a gentleman neatly dressed. We saw a man sorely afflicted. My neigh- 
bor purchased a house well furnished. 



Rule 16. Intransitive, Passive, and Muter Verbs take the same 
case after as before them, when both words signify the same person, or 
thing. J> 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In zvhich it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, and parse the 
nouns and pronouns in the nominative case after the several verbs, and to apply Rule 16. 

Washington was a brave general, and an able statesman. This gen- 
tleman is my protector, and friend. Addison is a teacher of wisdom, and 
a faithful copier of life and manners. Death is the king of terrors. I 
know him to be my friend. *Who does he think that we are ? She fell 
a victim to despair. She walks a goddess, and she moves a queen. Her 
name was called Penelope. Bonaparte was made emperor of France. 

Rule 17. Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning 
the same thing, and having the same grammatical relation, are put 
by apposition in the same case. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (i n addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish the nouns 
and pronouns, in apposition, and to apply Rule 17. 

Artaxerxes the king, decreed that Ezra, the priest and scribe of the law, 
should be obeyed in all things. Paul the apostle, was a preacher of right- 
eousness. I paid the money to the merchant, him who bought your 
house. 



*The indicative mood simply indicates or declares a thing, or asks a 
question. 



44 EXERCISES IN 

Rule 18. A verb, having two or more nominative words connect* 
ed by the copulative and, must be oj the plural form, 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of tht pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish the words con- 
nected hy and, and, on parsing the verb agreeing xvth ifcm, to apply Rule 18. 

Diligence and industry are material duties of the young. Wealth and 
titles are the gifts of fortune. Peace and contentment are the peculiar 
endowments of a well-disposed mind. Time and tide wait for no man, 
Quin the comedian was a great wit. 

Rule 19. Averb^ having twv or more nominatives connected by 
the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the singular form. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish the words con- 
nected by or and nor, and to apply Rule 19. 

The master or his servant is greatly in fault. Indolence or intemper- 
ance is the cause of his misfortune. He or she has done this mischief. 



Rule 2.0. When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, 
but is placed bejore a participle, it is in the nominative case absolute. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In zvhich it is required of the pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, and parse 
the xvords, in the case absolute, and to apply Rule 20. 

The business being finished, the court adjourned. The sun being risen, 
the day became fine. The orator having finished his discourse, the peo- 
ple retired. The winter being severe, the inhabitants suffered. Barlow, 
the book-seller, has published the Garland, a valuable work. 



Rule 21. When a direct address is made to a person or things 
the noun or pronoun is in the nominative case independent * 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

In which it is required of the pupil, (in addition to ih: preced'ng exercises) to distinguish, andparst 
the words in the nominative case independent, and to apply Rule 21. 

Plato, thou reasonest well! It must be so. Hail ! wedded love, per- 
petual fountain of domestic sweets. Oh, stretch thy reign, fair Peace? 
from shore to shore. My son, go to thy repose. O Grave, where is thy 
victory ! O Death, where is thy sting ! 

*A1I nouns in the second person are in the nominative case indepen- 
dent. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 45 

Rule 22. The Infinitive Mood, or part of a sentence, is some- 
times the subject of a ve"h, and therefore its nominative. 

EXAMPLES TO BE PARSED, 

, In xvhich it is required ofth pupil (in addition to the preceding exercises) to distinguish, and parse 
the phrases that form the nominatives to the s viral verbs, and to apply Rule 22. 

To err is human nature — to forgive, divine. To eat is pleasant, but to 
fast is wholesome. To be well acquainted with one's native language, is 
nothing to boast of; but not to be well acquainted with it, is a disgrace. 

When the participle of the neuter verb Be, preceded by a transitive verb, or 
a preposition, is accompanied by a noun, adjective, or adverb, it frequently makes 
part of a substantive phrase, ana the whole phrase is in the objective case, and 
governed by the preceding transitive verb, or the preposition. 

Examples. An Indian will resent his being denied the use of his mus- 
ket. The atrocious crime of being a young man, 1 shall neither attempt 
to palliate or deny. 



OF ELLIPSIS. 

The omission of any words necessary to the grammatical construction 
of a sentence, is called Ellipsis ; as, I beg you will come ; for, I beg that 
you will come : I rose at seven ; for, I rose at seven of the clock. 

The principal design of ellipsis is to avoid repetitions, and to express 
our ideas in few words. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical ; it is, there-, 
fore, very necessary to attend to this figure, or mode of expression. 

EXAMPLES, 

Wherein the method of supplying the words that are implied, and of analyzing sentences, is 
pointed out. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE NOUN. 
»S7ie is a good-natured, diligent, well-behaved girl ; instead of, She is a 
good-natured (girl, and a) diligent (girl, and a) well-behaved girl. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

Much rain and snow ; i. e. Much rain and (much) snow. A delightful 
garden and orchard ; i. e. A delightful garden and (a delightful) orchard. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ARTICLE. 
A man, woman and child; i. e. A man, (a) woman, and (a) child. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE VERB. 

I desire to hear and to learn ; i. e. 1 desire to hear, and (I desire) to learn, 
She was young, and beautiful, and good; i. e. She was young, and (she 
was) beautiful, and (she was) good. 



46 EXERCISES IN 

ELLIPSIS OF THE ADVERB. 

They sing and play most delightfully ; i. e. They sing (most delightfully,) 
and (they) play most delightfully. She reads and ivrites ivell ; i. e. She 
reads (well,) and (she) writes well. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PERSONAL AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
I love and fear him; i. e. I love (him,) and (I) fear him. I have read the 
hook yon lent me ; i. e. I have read the book (which) you lent me. This is 
the man they love ; i. e. This is the man (whom) they love. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE CONJUNCTION. 
I desire you will be good ; i. e. I desire (that) you will be good. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE PREPOSITION. 

/ gave them to your brother and sister ; i. e. I gave them to your brother, 
and (to your) sister. 

ELLIPSIS OF THE INTERJECTION. 
Oh ! pity and shame ; i. e. Oh, pity ! Oh, shame ! 

ELLIPSIS OF A PART OF A SENTENCE. 

Nature has given to animals one time to act, another to rest : i. e. Na- 
ture has given to animals one time to act (and nature has given to animals) 
another (time) to rest. 

"There is nothing men are more deficient in, than knowing their own 
characters." 

There is nothing (in which) men are more deficient, than (in) knowing 
their own characters. 

The following instances, though short, contain much of the ellipsis : — 
'Wo is me ;' i. e. 'Woe is to me.' 'To let blood ;' i. e. ' To let out blood.' 
'To let down ;' i. e. 'To let it fall or slide down.' 'To walk a mile ;' i. e. 
'To walk through the space of a mile.' 'To sleep all night ;' i. e. 'To 
sleep through all the night.' 'To go a fishing,' 'To go a hunting ;' i. e. 
'To go on a fishing voyage or business,' — ' To go on a hunting party.' ' I 
dine at two o'clock,' i.e. 'at twT) of the clock.' 'By sea, by land, on shore ;' 
i. e. ' By the sea, by the land, on the shore.' 

The examples that follow are produced to show the impropriety of 
ellipsis, in some particular cases. ' The land was always possessed, du- 
ring pleasure, by those entrusted with the command ; it should be, ' those 
persons intrusted ;' or 'those who were entrusted.' ' If he had read further, 
he would have found several of his objections might have been spared ;' 
that is, 'he would have found that several of his objections,' &c. 'I 
scarcely know any part of natural philosophy would yield more variety 
and use ;' it should be, 'which would yield,' &c. 'In the temper of mind 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 4? 

he was then,' i. e. Hn which he then was.' 'The little satisfaction and con- 
sistency, to be found in most of the systems of divinity I have met with* 
made me betake myself to the sole reading of the scriptures;' it ought to 
be, ¥ which are to be found,' and • which I have met with.' ' He desired 
they might go to the altar together, and jointly return their thanks to 
whom only they were due;' i.e. l to him to whom,' &c, 



OF TRANSPOSITION, OR INVERSION. 

There are two kinds of style — the natural, and the inverted, or trans- 
posed. 

A natural style is that in which the order of the words corresponds with 
the natural order of the ideas that compose the thoughts, or to speak more 
clearly, that in which the words succeed each other in their natural order. 

An inverted or transposed style is that in which the words are thrown 
out of their natural order, for the sake of some superior beauty; but it is 
seldom of advantage to invert the style, except in poetry. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Achilles' wrath, to Greece the direful spring 
Of woes unnumbered, heavenly goddess sing." 
Natural Order. Heavenly goddess ! sing the wrath of Achilles, the 
direful spring of unnumbered woes to Greece. 

" No bounds the Almighty's glory can restrain. 

Nor time's dimensions terminate Ms reign ; 

At his reproof convulsive nature shakes, 

And shivering earth from its foundation quakes." 
Natural Order. No bounds can restrain the glory of the Almighty, nor 
Can the dimensions of time terminate his reign; convulsive nature shakes 
at his reproof, and shivering earth quakes from its foundation. 

" Men in adversity most plain appear, 
It shows us really what, and who they are ; 
Then from their lips truth undissembled flows, 
The mask falls off, and the just features shows." 

Natural Order. Men appear most plain in adversity, it shows us really 
what (they are) and who they are; then, undissembled truth flow^ fron 
their lips, the mask falls off, and shows the just features. 



48 



EXERCISES IN 



Although a verb in the Infinitive Mood, is generally connected with £ 
finite verb, yet, it may follow a Noun, Adjective, Participle, or almost any 
other part of speech. 

EXAMPLES. 

"I am about to give you a few examples, by way of Ulustration." 

" He is old enough to know better, than to spend his time in this man- 
ner." 

" He is anxious to secure the election of that candidate, because he 
knows him to be well qualified to fulfil the duties of the office." 

"Endeavouring to persuade us, he became quite warm in his argu- 
ment." 

The definite article is frequently applied to adverbs of the comparative 
and superlative degrees, to mark the degrees more strongly. 

EXAMPLES. 

The more you study the faster you will learn. The sooner you go, the 
sooner you will return. 

The Indefinite article refers to a plural noun, when few, or the words 
great and many immediately precede the noun: as, a few trees— a great 
many houses. 



A FEW INSTANCES OF THE SAME WORD'S CONSTITUTING 
SEVERAL OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 



CALM. 

Calm was the day, and the scene 
delightful. 

We may expect a calm after a 
storm. 

To prevent passion, is easier than 
to calm it, 

LITTLE. 

Better is a little with content ? than 
a great deal with anxiety. 

A little attention will rectify some 
errors. 

The gay* and dissolute think little 
of the miseries which are stealing 
softly after them. 

STILL. 

Though he is out of danger, he is 
still afraid. 

He labored to still the tumult. 

Still waters are commonly deep- 
est. 

DAMP. 

Damp air is unwholesome. 



Guilt often casts a damp over our 
sprightly hours. 

Soft bodies damp the sound much 
more than hard ones. 

YET. 

They are yet young and must sus- 
pend their judgment for a while. 

Though she is rich and fair, yet 
she is not amiable. 

FEW AND MANY. 

Many persons are better than we 
suppose them to be. 

The few* and the many have their 
prepossessions. 

Few days pass without some 
clouds. 

MUCH. 

He has seen much of the world, 
and been much caressed. 

Think much and speak little. 

Much learning hath made thee 
mad ! 



*An adjective with the definite article before it, becomes a noun, (of the 
third person, plural number,) and must be parsed as such. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



49 



MORE. 

His years are more than hers ; but 
lie has not more knowledge. 

The more we are blessed, the more 
grateful we should be. 

The desire of getting more, is rare- 
ly satisfied. 

INFERIOR AND EQUAL. 

He has equal knowledge, but infe- 
rior judgment. 

She is his inferior in sense, but his 
equal in prudence. 

LIKE. 

Every being loves its like. 

We must make a like space be- 
tween the lines. 

Behave like men. 

We are too apt to like pernicious 
company. 

He may go or stay, as he likes. 
TO. 

They strive to learn. 

He goes to and fro.* 

To his wisdom we owe our privi- 
lege. 

The proportion is ten to one. 
UTMOST. 

He has served them with his ut- 
most ability. 

When we do our utmost, no more 
is required. 

FOR. 

I will submit, for I know that sub- 
mission brings peace. 

It is for our health to be temper- 
ate. 

Oh ! for better times. 

I have a regard for him. 

BOTH. 

He is esteemed both on his own 
account, and on account of his pa- 
rents. 

Both of thern deserve praise. 

YESTERDAY. 

Yesterday was a fine day. 
I rode out yesterday. 

TO-MORROW. 

To-morrow may be brighter than 
to-day. 



I shall write to-morrow. 

HAIL. 

We hail you as friends. 

Hail virtue ! source of every good. 

The hail was very destructive. 

THAT. 

An eclipse of the sun took place 
on that day. 

Why is our language less refined 
than thatf of France? 

I hope that we shall arrive in sea- 
son. 

He is the most generous person 
that ever lived. 

SINCE. 

I have not seen him since that 
time. 

I have seen your friend since I saw 
you. 

Let us return since the affair can- 
not be settled. 

AS. 

As he passed along his ears were 
delighted with the morning song of 
the birds of Paradise. 

As} many as arrived in season, em- 
barked free of expense. 

Such! as believe shall be saved, 
&c. 

We left them as we found them. 

We will take the oath as soon as 
he arrives. 

BUT. 

The path of glory leads but to the 
grave. 

She is handsome, but she is not 
amiable. 

They asked nothing but their lib- 
erty. 

THAN. . 

Man wants no more than may suf- 
fice. 

He is no more respected than his 
predecessor. 

WHAT. 

What was his conduct in his prse- 
torship here at home ? 

What man is so hardened as to de- 
ny these facts. 



*Two, or more words, used to show the manner, time, or place, in which 
an action is performed, are called an Adverbial phrase. 

fWhen "that" is used for a noun, it is a demonstrative pronoun. 

\As, when it follows such, and frequently when it follows same and many. 
becomes a relative pronoun. 

7 



50 



EXERCISES IN 



What wise men are our council- 
lors ! 

What! are you here, already! 

He extols what* he sees. 

What though in silence all move 
round this dark terrestrial ball, &c. 

I will try what virtue there is in 
stones. 

Come, I'll tell thee what — — . 

She knows not what colors are in 
fashion. 

What with hunger and what with 
fatigue, he was overcome. 



WHATEVER. 

Whatever purifies, fortifies the 
heart. 

Whatever useful or engaging en- 
dowments we possess, virtue is re- 
quisite, in order to their shining with 
proper lustre. 

Whatever they may say of me, I 
shall heed them not. 

WHOSOEVER. 

Whosoever shall receive this child 
in my name receiveth me ; and who- 
soever receiveth me receiveth him 
that sent me. 

Whomsoever I shall kiss the same 
is he . 



PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES TO BE PARSED. 



I would rather be myself f the 
slave and wear the chains, than fas- 
ten them on him. 

Rex and Tyranus are of very dif- 
ferent characters. Onei rules his 
people by laws to which they con 
sent ; the other,J by his absolute will 
an^ power, that || is called freedom 
|| this, tyranny. 

He was laughed at by his com pan 



The plank is one inch too thick. 

I wish to have the servant come 
hither. 

Give us this,day our daily bread. 

What do people say it is? 

They were spoken to respecting 
that subject. 

They cried away with him ! 

Mine is by yours 



Desire, not reason, will be the rul- 
ions, and talked of by all who knew ing principle of our conduct, 
him. He has gone a hunting, and he will 

He rose and rebuked the winds, walk many miles, 
and said unto the sea, peace, be still. The man being dismissed from of- 

I will give you a solution of the fice, his family suffered. 
comma, and, and it : The boy's being confined, was a 

Why make ye this ado? the dam- grief to his parents, 
sel is not dead but sleepeth. i Ye are one another's joy. Be ye 

Who do men say that I am? helpers one of another. 

To live long, ought not to be your They love each other, 
favorite wish, so much us to live well. Whom do you imagine it to have 

The weather is much too warm for been ? 
comfort. 

*What is a compound pronoun, including both the antecedent and the 
relative, and is equivalent to that and which — He extols that which he sees. 
That is a demonstrative pronoun, of the third person, singular number, in 
the objective case, and is governed by extols. Which is a relative pronoun, 
of the third person, singular number, in the objective case, and is governed 
by sees (agreeing with that for its antecedent.) 

fThe words myself, himself, ourselves, themselves, fyc. are called compound 
personal pronouns. 

J When the words some, one, any, other, all, such, are not prefixed to 
nouns, expressed or understood, they are called indefinite pronouns. 

|| When the words this, that, these, those, former and latter, stand for nouns, 
they are demonstrative pronouns. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 51 



What sculpture is to a block of 
marble, education is to the human 
soul. 

If thine enemy be hungry, give 
him bread to eat ; if he be thirsty, 
give him water to drink 



will be discharged immediately. 

Properly speaking, there are but 
two genders. 

There being much obscurity in the 
case, he reiiises to decide upon it. 

Junius Brutus, the son of Marcus 



One danced, another ran to and Brutus, and Collatinus, the husband 
fro. of Lucre tia, were chosen first consuls 

Sitting is the best posture for de- in Rome, 
liberation ; standing for persuasion.; To learn is our duty. 
A judge, therefore, should speak sit-! Id order to become a grammarian, 
ting; a pleader, standing. |l must study with diligence. 

What is the bigot's torch, the ty-j I have some recollection of my 
rant's chain ! fathers being a judge. 

Fathers! Senators of Rome! thej They rode for two days together. 
Arbiters of nations ! to you I fly fori He called the company man by 



refuge 

I do not care a sixpence whether 
he is wet or dry. 

On the same night he dreamed a 
dream. 

The ship is arrived and her cargo 



man. 

He began to speak unto them in 
parables. 

And he said unto them, exact no 
more than that which is appointed 
you. 



AGE. 

The minds of the aged are like the tombs to which they are approach- 
ing ; where though the brass and the marble remain, yet the inscriptions 
are effaced by time, and the imagery has mouldered away. 

TRUE HONOR. 

Would you not think it an honor to be employed by God in creating a 
world ? Would you not think it an honor to be employed by him in pre- 
serving and governing a world ? But greater, far greater is the honor of 
being employed as a co-worker with God in saving a world. This honor 
have all his saints. This honor we are invited to share. Pays ox. 

SCRIPTURE. 

From the antiquity of our translation of the Bible, there is often a 
quaintness in its expressions, and their introduction may give a point to 
some satirical remark, or furnish a striking form for some sally of wit. 
But we should beware. Scripture is a pure stream, flowing forth from 
the throne of God, and it should never be made to reflect the fantastic 
images of human folly. Newman. 

thought. 

What is thought ? It is an emanation from Deity. It is at once, the 
fear and joy of youth, — the solace of retirement — the companion of age, 
— and the telegraph of worlds. Though its first dawning in the infant 
mind, is faint and uncertain, yet like the rays that gild the earl} morn, or 
the first flashes of the young borealis, it gives promise of coming brightness. 
Subtle in its essence, mysterious and uncontrolable in its flight, — it rises 
from the minutest object and encircles empires. Again it rises, — ex- 
pands — and wings its silent, rapid way, from star to ttai — from sun to 
sun ; — still rising — still expanding, it reaches the court of Heaven — the 
throne of God — and embraces the Universe. J. Dow. 



52 



EXERCISES IN 



INTEMPERANCE. 

As to the vice of intemperance — its disgusting effects upon the body- 
its ruinous consequences to the health — its degrading and brutifying in- 
fluence upon the mind and character — its danger to society as the fruitful 
parent of every crime — its nuisance to the public as the chief; and almost 
only source of mendicity and pauperism — its pest to domestic life — the 
individual and secret wretchedness it inflicts — and the still greater, which 
are threatened against it in the scriptures of God — there can be — and 
there is— but one conviction. Nichols's Add. 



LANGUAGE. 

And what is language ? Language is the power 

Whereby, as with the arrowy light of Him, 

The broad brave sun that flashes through the sky 

Uninterrupted glory, Thought goes forth, 

From mind to mind, flash after flash, forever : 

At first a little fountain bubbled up, 

Within the desert or the wilderness, 

The outlet to a mine of wealth — of power, 

Ten thousand times more precious than the earth, 

Glittering with diamonds or charged with ore 

That man, short-sighted man, would perish for — 

A treasury of thought and speech: anon, 

It filtered forth and rolled away a brook — 

A streamlet then — a river — then a sea — 

Behold it now ! It overspreads the earth. 

Still, what is language ? Wouldst thou know in truth .? 

Forsake thy native land ; go forth alone, 

"All, all alone," where thy dear mother-tongue 

Would not avail thee, though thy lips were parched 

With mortal fever, though thy heart were wrung 

With mortal anguish ; put forth all thy power, 

By signs and looks, drop tears and utter cries, 

And see bow very helpless man may be, 

The mightiest man that sways it o'er the earth, 

For want of language. Art thou answered now ? 

Still, what is language? Language is the power, 

The everlasting, omnipresent power, 

Whereby man holds communion with his God, — 

Wherewith he does imperishable things: 

By it mankind perpetuate their strength, 

Their wisdom and their virtue, yea, and all 

Th^ir mighty fathers ever thought or did, 

Or ever knew ; by pouring forth for aye, 

Into the stream of knowledge, flowing on 

Forever and forever, all that they 

Have had bequeathed them here, and all that they 

Would leave to others — all that they have known 

By language only, that mysterious power, 

VVhich cannot be described but by itself, 

So like it is to Deity. Neal. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 



53 



OF THE USE OF PREPOSITIONS. 

The same preposition, generally speaking, should follow a noun, or an 
adjective, as would properly follow the verb from which the noun, or ad 
jective is derived. 



Acquit, 
Accuse, 
Abhorrence, 

Agreeable, 

Averse, 

Adapted, 

Brag, 
Boast, 



require of. 



require to. 



require of. 



Bestow requires upon. 
Contend re quires /or or with. 

Confide, ) 

~ . > require in. 

Conversant, $ x 

Call requires on. 

Consonant, -\ 

Conformable, V require to. 

Correspondent, j 
Caution requires against. 
Compliance requires with. 
Divide requires into. 

Diminution, ) r 

_. > require of. 

Disapprove, > 

Differ, \ 

Derogation, > require from. 

Dissent, J 

Dependant requires upon. 



require in. 



Discouragement requires to. 
Disappointment requires in or of. 
Enter requires in or into. 

Engaged, 
Eager, 

Exception requires/ro??i. 
Expert requires in or at. 
Founded requires on. 
Glad requires of or at. 
Insist requires upon. 
Martyr requires/or. 
Need requires of. 
Observance requires of 
Profit requires by. 
Prejudice requires against. 
Provide requires with. 
Prevail requires over. 
Reduce requires under or to. 
Replete requires with. 
Resemblance requires to. 
Swerve re quires from. 
Think requires of or on. 
Taste requires of or for. 
True requires to. 
Wait requires on. 



OF THE IMPROPER USE OF WORDS AND PHRASES. 

The phrases more perfect and most perfect, are improper ; because per- 
fection admits of no degrees of comparison. We may say nearer or near- 
est to perfection, or more or less imperfect. 

When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter term of 
comparison should not include the former. It is therefore improper to say 
" the scriptures are more valuable than any writings ;" we should say, 
"than any other writings." 



54 EXERCISES IN 



When the superlative degree of an adjective is used, the latter term of 
comparison should never exclude the former. Therefore, instead of say- 
ing "profane swearing is, of all other vices the most inexcusable; we. 
should say, "of all vices," &c. 

Farther applies to place and distance ; and further to quantity or addition. 

Later and latter cannot be used indifferently with propriety ; latter refers 
to place ; later respects time only. 

The phrase " seldom or ever," is improper ; we should either say, " sel" 
dom if ever" — or "seldom or never." 

" I had rather," is often improperly used, instead of " I would rather." 

To lay (to place something) in the present tense, is properly written lay, 
in the imperfect laid ; the perfect participle is also laid. To lie (down) 
is lie in the present tense, lay in the imperfect, and lain in the perfect par- 
ticipJe. / Lie is conjugated regularly when it means to tell a falsehood ; 
as "he lied" — " he has lied." " 

Set is an intransitive verb in some senses, which makes it proper to say, 
" To set out on a journey ; to set up in business ; the sun sets, and fair 
weather has set in." 

The following are examples of mistakes in the use of the transitive 
verbs lay and set ; and of the intransitive verbs lie and sit, with the correc- 
tion after each. 

" He lays in bed too long" — (lies.) " I have a work laying by me" — 

(lieing.) "Go and lay down" — (lie,) "I laid and slept an hour"— 

[lay.) " I was laying on the grass" — (lieing.) " He has laid there a 

long time" — (lain.) "He has lain himself down to rest" — (laid.) 

"Let me set down" — (sit) "I afterwards went and set down" — (sat.) 

" He sat himself down" — (set) " The hen is setting on her eggs" — 

(sitting.) "The wind sits in the east" — (sets.) 

The verb to learn, is never used transitively, except when it has for its 
subject the person who obtains the knowledge, or information, and for its 
only object the knowledge, or information obtained. It is proper to say, 
" I am learning grammar ;" but improper to say, " the master learns me 
grammar," instead of teaches me ; or " learn me to do that," instead of teach 
me. 

Tautology, which means the repeating of a word, or an idea that has 
been fully expressed before, is a frequent error in composition. 

The verb to return, signifies to go, or come back ; go, or come again ; yet, 
we sometimes hear, and read the phrases, return hack — and return again — 
and even return back again. 

To converse means to talk together, therefore it is wrong to say "they 
are conversing together. 

To fall includes the idea of down, as to rise does that of up ; for we can- 
not say to fall up, or to rise down. It is therefore improper, because it is 
unnecessary, to say fall down, or rise up. 

The adjective mutual, includes the meaning of the words, each other, or 
one another; therefore it is wrong to say, " They bear a mutual likeness to 
each other." 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



55 



"To enter" means to go (or come) in ; therefore we should not say, " en- 
ter in." 

Restore means to give back ; therefore it is wrong to say of a thing, " I 
restore it back, or again," &c. 

The phrases, first of all, last of all, are improper; one of the things men- 
tioned,or attended to, cannot he first, if any of the others are before it ; and 
certainly, if a thing is not last of all, it cannot be the last. 

It is wrong to use both, when the two things under consideration, have 
been expressly named ; as, " I took some wine, and some water, and mix- 
ed them both together." " I saw two chairs fastened both together." "My 
brother called on me, and we both took a walk." 

Throughout expresses the idea of through all, or through every part ; we 
should not say, therefore, " I searched all the country throughout," or, 
"We found these sentiments throughout the whole book." 

" In the expression I have just now written," the adverb now is redund- 
ant, and ought to be expunged. 

UNGRAMMATICAL WORDS AND PHRASES CORRECTED. 



UNGRAMMATICAL. 

He only spoke three words. 
He is seldom or ever right. 
He said how that he would s^o. 
They never will believe but what I 

am to blame. 
Be it never so true. 
Where are you going ? 
Are you travelling there ? 
I have not hearn the story. 
I catched cold last evening. 
They rode in a horse and chay. 
Who did you speak to ? 
Was I an officer, &c. 
He has got it. 
Who find him in money ? 
He put money in his pocket. 
The report was founded in truth. 
This house is to let. 
I shall call upon him. 
Is the gentleman in ? 
He covered it over. 
If I had have known it earlier. 
Frequent opportunity. 
He hadn't ought to do it. 
He killed them dead. 
Give me them books. 
The villain was hung. 
He mentioned it over again. 
I done it mvself. 



CORRECTED. 
He spoke only three words. 
He is seldom if ever right. 
He said that he would go. 
They never will believe but that I 

am to blame. 
Be it ever so true. 
Whither are you going ? 
Are you travelling thither? 
I have not heard the story. 
I caught cold last evening. 
They rode in a one-horse chaise. 
To whom did you speak ? 
Were I an officer, &c. 
He has it. 

Who finds him money ? 
He put money into his pocket. 
The report was founded on truth. 
This house is to be let. 
I shall call on him. 
Is the gentleman within ? 
He covered it. 
If I had known it earlier. 
Frequent opportunities. 
He ought not to do it. 
He killed them. 
Give me those books. 
The villain was hanged. 
He mentioned it again. 
I did it myself. 



56 



EXERCISES IN 



1 have eat heartily. 

It lays on the table. 

He is laying down. 

He is quite the gentleman. 

He seed him afore. 

The fields are overflown. 

Overseer over his house. 

Opposite the church. 

This here. 

That there. 

I an't cold. 

We wer'nt there. 

He came in town this morning. 

Whether he will or no. 

We go to church for to worship. 

I cannot by no means allow it. 

All over the country. 

Be that as it will. 

He answered and said. 

He knows nothing on it. 

They both met together. 

I had rather not. 

Says I. 

I propose to visit them. 

He is one of my acquaintance. 

I intended to have rewarded him. 



I have eaten heartily. 

It lies on the table. 

He is lying down. 

He is a gentleman. 

He saw him before. 

The fields are overflowed. 

Overseer of his house. 

Opposite to the church. 

This. 

That. 

I am not cold. 

We were not there. 

He came into town this morning. 

Whether he will or not. 

We go to church to worship. 

I can by no means allow it. 

Over all the country. 

Be that as it may. 

He answered. 

He knows nothing of it. 

They met. 

I would rather not. 

Said I. 

I purpose to visit them. 

He is one of my acquaintances. 

I intended to reward him. 



ETYMOLOGY 



{In case any teacher who may use this work, should not have sufficient leisure verbally tolllus- 
crate to his pupils, the rules and definitions given in the preceding exercises in Etymology and 
Syntax-, or, in case his pupils should be too young fully to understand such illustration when giv- 
en, the compiler would recommend, that they be required to commence the subject by getting, in 
distinct and successive portions, the answers to ihe questions on Etymology, at the bottom of the 
following pages. This will enable them understanding^ to enter upon the exercises in Etymol- 
ogy and Syntax, and with a little aid from their teacher, to make rapid improvement in the busi- 
ness of parsing, &c. 

The number prefixed to each question corresponds to the number given in the portion of mat- 
ter designed for the answer.] 



Etymology (1) treats of the different sorts of words, their various modi- 
fications, and their derivations. 

Etymology is compounded of two Greek w r ords, which signify origin and word. It means lite- 
rally the derivation of a word from its original. 

There (2) are, in English, ten sorts of words, or, as they are commonly 
called, parts of speech; namely, the Noun, the Adjective, the Article, the 
Verb, the Participle, the" Adverb, the Pronoun, the Conjunction, the Pre- 
position, and the Interjection. 

OF NOUNS. 

A Noun (3) is the name of any thing that we can see, taste, hear, smell, 
feel, or conceive of; as, man, wine, virtue. 

The word Noun, is derived from the Latin word nemen, which signifies a name. 

Nouns are (4) divided into proper and common. 

Proper (5) nouns are the names appropriated to individuals ; as, George, 
London, Thames. 

Common (6) nouns stand for a whole species, class or kind, whether 
the class consists of one, or more individuals ; as, animal, man, tree, &c. 
The General is the Washington of the age. 

When (7) proper nouns or names, have an article prefixed to them, they 
are used as common names; as, "He is the Cicero of his age;" "He is 
reading the lives of the Twelve Ctesars." 

QUESTIONS. 

(l) What dees Etymology treat of? — (2) How many sorts of words are there ? — (3) What is a 
noun ?— (4) How are nouns divided ?— (5) What is a proper noun ?— (6) What do common noun* 
aland for? — (7) When proper nouns have an article prefixed, how are they used.' 

8 



58 ETYMOLOGY. 

Common (1) names may also be used to signify individuals, by the ad- 
dition of articles or pronouns ; as, " The boy "is studious ; that girl is dis- 
creet." * 

Nouns (2) have four properties ; namely, Person, Number, Gender, and 
€ase. 

Or Person. 

Person (3) is that quality of the noun, (or pronoun) which modifies the- 
verb. 

There are (4) three persons ; namely, the First, Second, and Third. 

The (5) first person denotes the speaker — the second, the person spo- 
ken to — and the third, the person, or the thing spoken of. 

Of Number, 
Number (6) is the consideration of an object, as one or more 
Nouns, (7) are of two numbers, the singular and the plural. 

The (8) singular number expresses but one object; as, a chair, a 
table. 

The (9) plural number signifies more objects than one ; as, chairs, ta- 
bles. 

Some (10) nouns, from the nature'of the things which they express, are 
used only in the singular form ; as, wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, pride, &c. ; 
others, only in the plural form; as, (11) bellows, scissors, lungs, riches, 
&c- 

Some (12) words are the same in both numbers; as, deer, sheep, swine, 

The (13) plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the 
singular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; thought, thoughts. But (14) when 
the noun singular ends in x, ch soft, sh, ss, or s, we add es in the plu- 
ral ; as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; kiss, kisses ; rebus, 
rebusses. If the singular (15) ends in ch hard, the plural is formed by ad- 
ding s; as, monarch, monarchs ; distich, distichs. 

Nouns (16) which end in o,have sometimes, es, added to the plural; as, 
cargo, echo, hero, negro, manifesto, potato, volcano, wo ; and sometimes 
only 5 ; as, folio, nuncio, punctilio, seraglio. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) Can common names be used to signify individuals ?— (2) How many properties have nouns ? 
—(3) What is person ? — (4) How many persons are there ? — (5) What does each person de- 
note ? — (6) What is number ? — (7) How many numbers are there ? — (8) What does the singular 
number express? — (9) What does the plural number signify? — (10) Give examples of nouns used 
only in the singular form ? — (11) Give examples of nouns, used only in the plural form ? — (12) Give 
examples of words having the same form in both numbers ? — (13) How is the plural number of 
nouns generally formed ? — (14) How is the plural number formed of such nouns as end in cr, ch 
soft, .«, or s, in the singular? — (15) If the singular ends in ch hard, how is the plural formed ? — 
( 16) How do nouns ending in o, form their plurals ? 

* Nouns may also be divided into the following classes ; Collective nouns, 
or nouns of multitude ; as, the people, the parliament, the army ; Abstract 
nouns, or the names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, 
knowledge, goodness, whiteness ; Verbal or participial nouns ; as, begin- 
ning, reading, writing. 

The English language contains in all about forty thousand words. 



ETVMOLOGY 



59 



Nouns (1) ending in/, or/e, are rendered plural by the change of those 
terminations into ves ; as loaf, loaves ; half, halves ; wife, wives ; except, 
grief, relief, reproof, and several others, which form the plural by the ad- 
dition of s. Those which end in ff, have the regular plural; as, ruff 
ruffs ; except, staff, staves. 

Nouns (2) which have y in the singular, with no other vowel in the same 
syllable, change it into ies in the plural; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. 
But the y is not changed, when there is another vowel in the syllable ; as, 
key, keys ; delay, delays ; attornej 7 ", attorneys. 

Some (3) nouns become plural by changing the a of the singular into 
6 ; as, man, men ; woman, women ; alderman, aldermen. The words, ox 
and (4) child, form oxen and children ; brother, makes either brothers, or 
brethren. Sometimes (5) the dipthong oo is changed into ee in the plural : 
as, foot, feet; goose, geese; tooth, teeth. Louse and 'mouse make lice 
and mice. Penny makes pence, or pennies when the coin is meant ; die, 
dice (for play ;) die, dies (for coining.) 

It is agreeable (6) to analogy, and the practice of the generality of cor- 
rect writers, to construe the following words as plural nouns ; pains, rich- 
es, alms ;' and also, mathematics, metaphysics, politics, ethics, optics, pneu- 
matics, with other similar names of sciences. 

The word (7) news is now almost universally considered as belonging 
to the singular number. 

The (8) noun means is used both in the singular and the plural number. 

The following words, which have been adopted from the Hebrew, 
Greek, and Latin languages, are thus distinguished, with respect to num- 
ber. 

PluraL 
Data, 
Effluvia, 
J Encomia, or 
I Encomiums, 
Errata, 
Genii,* 
Genera, 
J Indices, or 
I Indexes^ 
Laminae, 
Media, 
Magi, 
X Memoranda, or 
I Memorandums, 
Radii, 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How are nouns ending in/, or/e, rendered plural ?— (2) How do nouns ending in y in the 
singular, form their plurals i— (3) What nouns form their plurals by changing a into i ?— (4) How 
is the plural of the words child, ox, and brother, formed ?— (5) Wliat nouns form iheir plurals by 
changing the dipthong oo into u. ? — (6) How are the nouns, pains, riches, alms, mathematics, tec- 
construed ? — (7) Of what number is news? — (8) Of what number is rmans considered ? — (9) What is 
the plural of Cherub?— Repeat the plural of each word in the table of Greek and Latin words. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Cherub, 


(9) Cherubim, 


Datum, 


Seraph, 


Seraphim, 


Effluvium, 


Antithetis, 
Automaton, 


Antitheses, 
Automata, 


Encomium, 


Basis, 


Bases, 


Erratum, 


Crisis, 


Crises, 


Genius,* 


Criterion, 


Criteria, 


Genus, 


Diaeresis, 


Diaereses, 


Index,f 


Ellipsis, 


Ellipses, 


Emphasis, 


Emphases, 


Lamina, 


Hypothesis, 


Hypotheses, 


Medium, 


Metamorphosis, 


Metamorphoses, 


Magus, 


Phenomenon, 


Phaenomena, 


Memoran- 


Appendix, 


^ Appendices, or 
\ Appendixes, 


dum 
Radius, 



* Genii, when denoting aerial spirits; Geniuses, when signifying persons 
of genius. 

\ Indexes, when it signifies pointers, or tables of contents. Indices when 
referring to algebraic quantities. 



60 



ETYMOLOGY 



Arcanum* 

Axis, 
Calx, 



Arcana, 

Axes, 
Calces, 



Stamen* 
Stratum, 
Vortex, 



Stamina, 

Strata, 
Vortices* 



Some words, derived from learned languages, are Confined to the plu- 
ral number; as, (I) antipodes, credenda, literati, minutiae. 

The following (2) nouns being in Latin, both singular and plural are- 
used in the same manner when adopted into our tongue ; hiatus, appa- 
ratus, series, species* 

Of Gendeb;. 

Gender (3) is the distinction of nouns with regard to sex. (4) There 
are three genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The (5) Masculine Gender denotes animals of the male kind: as, m 
man, a horse, a bull. 

The Feminine Gender signifies animals of the female kind : as, a wo- 
man, a duck, a hen. - 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects which are neither males nor 
females : as, a field, a house, a garden. 

Some (6) nouns naturally neuter, are, by a figure of speech, converted 
into the masculine or feminine gender : as, when we say of the sun, he is 
setting ; and of a ship, she sails ivelL 

The (7) English language has three methods of distinguishing the sex, 
viz : 

1. By different words; as, 



Male. 


Female* 


Male. 


Female. 


Bachelor, 


Maid, 


Husband, 


Wife, 


Boar, 


Sow, 


King, 


Queen, 


Boy, 


Girl, 


Lad, 


Lass, 


Brother, 


Sister, 


Lord, 


Lady, 


Buck, 


Doe, 


Man, 


Woman* 




2. By a difference of termination : 


as, 


Male. 


Female. 


Male. 


Female, 


Abbot, 


Abbess, 


Landgrave, 


Landgravine, 


Actor, 


Actress, 


Lion, 


Lioness, 


Administrator, 


Administratrix, 


Marquis, 


Marchioness, 


Adulterer, 


Adultress, 


Master, 


Mistress, 


Ambassador, 


Ambassadress, 


Mayor, 


Mayoress, 


Arbiter, 


Arbitress, 


Patron, 


Patroness, 


Baron, 


Baroness, 


Peer, 


Peeress, 


Bridegroom, 


Bride, 


Poet, 


Poetess, 


Benefactor, 


Benefactress, 


Priest, 


Priestess, 



QUESTIONS. 

(i) Of what number are antipodes, credenda, literati, and minutct considered ?— {2) How are hia- 
tus, apparatus, scries, species used ? — (3) What is Gender ?— (4) How many genders are there ?— •• 
(5) Give the definition of each?— (6) Are nouns naturally neuter made of the masculine, or fem- 
inine gender ?~(7) How many methods are there, in English, to distinguish the sex ?~-(8) Give 
examples of each. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



61 



3. By a noun, pronoun, or adjective, being prefixed to the noun ; as, 



A cock-sparrow, 
A man-servant, 
^he-goat, 
A he-bear, 
A male child, 
Male descendants, 



A hen-sparrow, 
A maid-servant, 
A she-goat, 
A she-bear, 
A female child, 
Female descendants. 



It sometimes happens that the same noun is either masculine or femi- 
nine. (1) The words parent, child, cousin, friend, neighbor, servant, and 
several others, are used indifferently for males or females* 



Of Case. 

Case (2) is the condition or situation of the noun, in relation to other 
words in a sentence. 

In English, (3j nouns have three cases, the nominative, the possessive, 
and the objective.* 

The nominative (4) case simply expresses the name of a thing, or the 
subject of a verb; as, "The boy plays;" "The girls learn," 

The possessive case expresses the relation of property or possession ; 
and has an apostrophe with the letter s coming after it; as, "The schol- 
ar's duty ;" " My father's house." 

When (5) the plural ends in s, the other s is omitted, but the apostrophe 
is retained; as, "On eagles' wings;" "The drapers' company." 

Sometimes, (6) also, when the singular terminates in ss, the apostrophic 
8 is not added ; as, " For goodness' sake ;" " For righteousness' sake." 

The (7) objective case expresses the object of an action, or of a relation ; 
and generally follows a verb active, or a preposition ; as, "John assists 
Charles;" "They live in London." 

Nouns (8) are declined in the following manner : 

Singular, 

Nominative Case. A mother, 

Possessive Case, A mother's, 

Objective Case, A mother, 



Plural. 

Mothers, 

Mothers', 

Mothers. 



Afominative Case, 
Possessive Case, 
Objective Case, 



The man, 
The man's, 
The man, 



The men, 
The men's, 
The men. 



questions. 

(1) How are the nouns parent, child, cousin, friend* neighbour, and servant used ?— (2) What 
is case ? — (3; How many cases are there ? — (4) Give a definition of the nominative and possessive. 
(5) How is the possessive case formed, when the nominative ends in s ?— (6) How is it formed 
when the noun ends in ss ?— (7) What does the objective case express ? — (8) How are nouns de- 
clined f 

*The possessive is sometimes called the genitive case; and the objec 
tive, the accusative. 



62 ETYMOLOGY. 



OF ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective (1) is a word added to a noun, or a pronoun, to express some 
quality, or circumstance of the thing for which the noun or pronoun 
stands ; as, " An industrious man ;" "A virtuous woman ;" "He is goody 

In English, (2) the adjective is not varied on account of gender, num- 
ber, or case. Thus we say, " A careless boy ; careless girls." 

The only variation (3) which it admits, is that of the degrees of com- 
parison. 

There are (4) commonly reckoned three degrees of comparison ; the 
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive State (5) expresses the quality of an object, without any 
increase or diminution; as, good, wise, great. 

The Comparative Degree (6) increases or lessens the positive in signifi- 
cation ; as, wiser, greater, less wise. 

The Superlative Degree [7) increases or lessens the positive to the high- 
est or lowest degree ; as, wisest, greatest, least wise. 

The simple word, (8) or positive, becomes the comparative, by adding 
r, or er ; and the superlative, by adding st, or est, to the end of it ; as, wise, 
wiser, wisest ; great, greater, greatest. And the adverbs more and most, 
placed before the adjective, have the same effect ; as, wise, more \vise,most 
wise. 

The termination (9) ish, may be accounted in some sort a degree of 
comparison, by which the signification is diminished below the positive ; 
as, black, blackish, or tending to blackness ; salt, saltish, or having a little 
taste of salt. 

The word rather (10) is very properly used to express a small degree or 
excess of a quality ; as, " She is rather profuse in her expenses." 

Monosyllables, (11) for the most part, are compared by er and est; and 
dissyllables by more and most; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more fru- 
gal, most frugal. Dissyllables ending in y ; as, happy, lovely ; and in le 
after a mute, as, able, ample ; or accented on the last syllable, as, discreet, 
polite ; easily admit of er and est; as, happier, happiest ; abler, ablest ; po- 
liter, politest. Words of more than two syllables hardly ever admit of 
those terminations. 

In some words, (12) -the superlative is formed by adding the adverb most 
to the end of them ; as, nethermost, uttermost, or utmost, undermost, up- 
permost, foremost. 

In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very com- 
mon use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of anal- 
ogy,) that are irregular in this respect ; as, (13J " good, better, best ; bad, 

QUESTIONS, 

(l) What is an Adjective? — (2) Are adjectives varied on account of person, number, &c. ? — 
(3) What variations have they ? — (4) How many degrees of comparison are there ? — (5) What does 
the positive state express ? — (6) What does the comparative degree express ? — (7) What does the 
superlative degree express? — (8) How does the simple word, or positive, become the comparative? 
— (9) What effect does the termination ish have? — (10) How is the word rather used ? — (11) How 
are monosyllables compared ?— (12) What words are compared by adding the adverb most to the 
end of them ?— (13) Compare the adjective good, bad, little, much, near, late, and old. 



ETYMOLOGY. 63 



worse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, nearer, 
nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest or eld- 
est ;" and a few others. 

An adjective (1) put without a noun, with the definite article before it, 
becomes a noun in sense and meaning, and is written as a noun; as, 
" Providence rewards the good, and punishes the bad*" 

Various nouns (2) placed before other nouns assume the nature of adjec- 
tives ; as, sea fish, wine vessel, corn field, meadow ground, &c. 

Numeral adjectives (S) are either cardinal, or ordinal ; cardinal, as, one, 
two, three, &c. ; ordinal, as, first, second, third, &c. 



OF ARTICLES. 

An Article (4) is a word prefixed to nouns, and pronouns, to lirriit their 
signification. 

Articles are so called from the Latin word articulus, signifying a joint, or a very small part. 

In English (5) there are but twT> articles, a and the ; a becomes an when 
the following word begins with a vowel sound ; as, an acorn, an hour. 
But when the following word begins with a consonant sound, a is used ; 
as, a hand, a heart, a highway. 

A or an (6) is styled the indefinite article ; it is used in a vague sense, 
to point out one single thing of the kind, in other respects indeterminate; 
as, " Give me a book ;" " Bring me an apple." 

The (7) is called the definite article ; because it ascertains what partic- 
ular thing or things are meant; as, "Give me the book;" "Bring me the 
apples ;" meaning some book, or apples, referred to. 

A noun without any article to limit it, is generally taken in its widest 
sense ; as, "A candid temper is proper for man ;" that is, for all mankind. 

The peculiar use and importance of the articles will be seen in the fol- 
lowing examples ; "The son of a king — the son of the king — a son of the 
king." Each of these three phrases has an entirely different meaning, 
through the different application of the articles a and the. 

The article (8) is omitted before nouns that imply the different virtues, 
vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. ; as, "prudence 
is commendable ; falsehood is odious ; anger ought to be avoided ;" &c. 
It is not prefixed to a proper name ; as, "Alexander," (because that of 
itself denotes a determinate individual or particular thing,) except for the 
sake of distinguishing a particular family ; as, "He is a Howard, or of the 
family of the Howards ;" or by way of eminence ; as, "Every man is not 
a Newton ;" " He has the courage of an Achilles ;" or when some noun is 
understood; "He sailed down the (river) Thames, in tf/ie(ship) Britannia." 

The indefinite (9) article can be joined to nouns in the singular num- 
ber only ; (10) the definite article may be joined to plurals as well as singu- 
lars. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How is an adjective without the definite before it, used ."—(2) Do nouns become adjectives ?— 
(3) How are numeral adjectives divided ?— (4) What is an article ?— (5) How many articles are there? 
—(6) Which is styled the indefinite article ?— (7) Which is called the definite article?— '8, Before 
what class of nouns are the articles omitted ?--- (9) How is the indefinite article used ?— (10) How is 
the definite used ? 



64 ETYMOLOGY. 



But there (1) appears to be a remarkable exception to this rule, in the us** 
of the adjectives /ew and many, (the latter chiefly with the word great be- 
fore it,) which, though joined with plural nouns, yet admit of the singular 
article a ; as, a few men ; a great many men. 

The reason of it is manifest, from the effect which the article has in 
these phrases ; it means a small or great number collectively taken, and 
therefore gives the idea of a whole, that is, of unity. Thus likewise, a 
dozen, a score, a hundred, or a thousand, is one whole number, an aggre- 
gate of many collectively taken ; and therefore still retains the article a, 
though joined as an adjective to a plural substantive ; as, a hundred years, 
&c. 

The indefinite article is sometimes placed between the adjective many, 
and a singular noun ; as, 

" Full many a gem of purest ray serene, 

The dark unfathom'd caves of ocean bear ; 
Full many a flower is born to blush unseen, 

And waste its sweetness on the desert air." 

In these lines, the phrases, many a gem and many aflow'r, refer to many 
gems and many flowers, separately, not collectively considered. 

The definite (2) article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the com- 
parative and superlative degree; and its (3) effect is, to mark the degree 
the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely ; as, " The more I 
examine it, the better I like it. I like this the least of any." 



OF VERBS. 

A Verb (4) is a word which signifies action, being, or suffering. 

Verb is derived from the Latin verbum, which signifies a word. 

Verbs ( 5) are divided into three sorts, namely, Active, Neuter, and Pas- 
sive. 

Active verbs are also divided into Transitive, and Intransitive. 

A transitive verb (6) expresses an action which affects an object ; as, 
u The teacher instructs his pupils." 

An intransitive verb (7) expresses an action confined to the actor; as, 
M The birdies swiftly." 

A neuter verb (8) expresses neither action nor passion, but being, or 
a state of being. 

A passive verb (9) expresses a passion or a suffering, or the receiving 
of an action. — (Seepage 41. J 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) What exceptions are there ? — (2) Is the definite article ever applied to adverbs?— (3) What 
is its effect ?— (4) What is a Verb ? — (5) Into how many sorts are verbs divided ? — (6) What 
does a transitive verb express ? — (7) What does an intransitive verb express f — (8) What does a neu- 
ter verb express ? — (9) What does a passive verb express ? 






ETYMOLOGY 65 



Many verbs (1) are used both in a transitive, and in an intransitive sig- 
nification ; the construction determining of what kind they are ; as, to 
flatten, signifying to make even or level, is a transitive verb ; but, when 
it signifies to grow dull or insipid, it is an intransitive verb. 

An intransitive verb, (2) by the addition of a preposition, may become a 
compound transitive verb. To smile is an intransitive verb, but to smile on 
is a compound transitive verb ; therefore we properly say " He was smiled 
on by fortune" — " She smiled on him." 

Auxiliary (3) or helping verbs, are those by the help of which the prin- 
cipal verbs are conjugated. They are, do, be, have, shall, will, may, can, 
with their variations ; and must, which has no variations. 

Of Mood. 

Mood or Mode, (4) is a particular form of the verb, showing the man- 
ner in which the being, action, or passion, is represented. 

Mood consists in the change which the verb undergoes, to signify vari- 
ous intentions of the mind, and various modifications and circumstances 
of action. 

There (5) are five moods of verbs, namely, the Indicative, the Subjunc- 
tive, the Potential, the Infinitive, and the Imperative. 

The Indicative Mood (6) simply indicates or declares a thing ; as, " He 
loves, he is loved ;" or it asks a question ; as, " Does he love ?" " Is he 
loved?" 

The Subjunctive Mood(7) represents a thing under a condition, motive, 
wish, supposition, &c. ; and is preceded by a conjunction, expressed or 
understood, and attended by another verb ; as, " I will respect him, though 
he chide me." 

The Potential Mood (8) implies possibility or liberty, power, will, or 
obligation ; as, " It may rain ; he may go or stay, I can ride ; he would 
walk ; they should learn." 

The Infinitive Mood (9) expresses a thing in a general and unlimited 
manner, without any distinction of number or person ; as, " To act, to 
speak, to be feared." 

The Imperative Mood is (10) used for commanding, exhorting, entreat- 
ing, or permitting ; as, " Depart thou ; mind ye ; let us stay ; go in 
peace." 

Of the Tenses or Times. 

Tense, (11) being the means or method of dividing time, might seem 
to admit only of the present, past, and future ; but to mark it more accu- 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) Is the same verb ever used both in a transitive and an intransitive sense?— (2) Does an in- 
I ron.sitivt verb ever become transitive ?— (3) What are auxiliary verbs ? — (4) What is moor' or mode* 
—(5) How many moods are there?— (6) What does the indicative mood indicate ?— (7) What does 
the subjunctive mood represent ?— (3) What does the potential mood imply ?— (9) What does the 
infinitive mood express ?— (10) What is the imperative mood used for?— (11) What is Tense ? 





66 etymologV. 



rately, it is made to consist (1) of six variations, viz. the Present, the hri- 
perfect, the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second Future Tenses* 

The Present Tense (2) represents an action or event as passing at the 
time in which it is mentioned ; as, " I rule ; I am ruled ; I think ; I fear." 

The Present Tense likewise expresses a character, quality, &c. at pres- 
ent existing ; as, "He is an able man ;" " She is an amiable woman." It 
is also used in speaking of actions continued, with occasional intermis- 
sions, to the present time ; as, " He frequently rides ;" " He walks out 
every morning ;" " He goes into the country every summer." We some- 
times apply this tense even to persons long since dead ; as, " Seneca rea- 
sons and moralizes well;" "Job speaks feelingly of his afflictions." 

The Present Tense, preceded by the words, when, before, after, as soon 
as, &c. is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future action ; 
as, " When he arrives he will hear the news ;" "He will hear the news 
before he arrives, or as soon as he arrives, or, at farthest, soon after he ar- 
rives ;" x " The more she improves, the more amiable she will be." 

In animated historical narrations, this tense is sometimes substituted 
for the imperfect tense ; as, " He enters the territory of the peaceable in- 
habitants; he fights and conquers, takes an immense booty, which he di- 
vides amongst his soldiers, and returns home to enjoy an empty triumph." 

The Imperfect Tense (3) represents the action or event, either as past 
and finished, or as remaining unfinished at a certain time past ; as, " I 
loved her for her modesty and virtue ;" " They were travelling post when 
he met them." 

The Perfect Tense (4) not only refers to what is past, but also conveys 
an allusion to the present time ; as, " I have finished my letter ;" " I have 
seen the person that was recommended to me." 

The perfect tense, and the imperfect tense, both denote a thing that is 
past ; but the former denotes it in such a manner that there is actually 
remaining some part of the time to slide away, wherein we declare the 
thing has been done ; whereas the imperfect denotes the thing or action 
past, in such a manner, that nothing remains of the time in which it was 
done. If we speak of the present century, we say, " Philosophers have 
made great discoveries in the present century ;" but if we speak of the last 
century ,we say, " Philosophers made great discoveries in the last century." 

The Pluperfect (5) Tense represents a thing, not only as past, but also 
as prior to some other point of time specified in the sentence ; as, " I had 
finished my letter before he arrived." 

The First Future Tense (6) represents the action as yet to come, either 
with or without respect to the precise time ; as, " The sun will rise to- 
morrow ;" " I shall see them again." 

The Second Future (7) intimates that the action will be fully accom- 
plished, at, or before, the time of another future action or event; as, "I 
shall have dined at one o'clock." " The two houses will have finished 
their business when they adjourn." 

It is to be observed, that in the subjunctive mood, the event being spo- 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How many variations of tense are there ?— (2) What does the present tense represent ?— 
(3) What does the imperfect tense represent ? — (4) What does the perfect tense represent ?— (5) What 
does the pluperfect tense represent ? — (6) What does the first future tense represent f — (7) What does 
the second future tense represent f 



ETYMOLOGY. 



67 



ken of under a condition or supposition, or in the form of a wish, and 
therefore as doubtful and contingent, the verb itself in the present, and 
the auxiliary both of the present and past imperfect times, often carry 
with them somewhat of a future sense ; as, " If he come to-morrow, I 
may speak to him ;" " If he should, or would come to-morrow, y I might, 
would, could, or should speak to him." Observe also, that the auxiliary 
should and would, in the imperfect times, are used to express the present 
and future, as well as the past ; as, " It is my desire that he should, or 
would come now, or to-morrow;" as well as, "It was my desire, that he 
should or would come yesterday." So that in this mood the precise time 
of the verb is very much determined by the nature and drift of the sen- 
tence. 

The present, past, and future tenses may be used either definitely or in- 
definitely, both with respect to time and action. When they donote cus- 
toms or habits, and not individual acts, they are applied indefinitely ; as, 
" Virtue promotes happiness ;" " The old Romans governed by benehts 
more than by fear ;" " I shall hereafter employ my time more usefully." 
In these examples, the words promotes, governed and shall employ are used 
indefinitely, both in regard to action and time ; for they are not confined 
to individual actions nor to any precise points of present, past, or future 
time. When they are applied to signify particular actions, and to ascer- 
tain the precise points of time to which they are confined, they are used 
definitely, as in the following instances. " My brother is writing ;" " He 
built the house last summer, but did not inhabit it till yesterday." "He 
will write another letter to-morrow.' ' 

The different tenses also represent an action as complete or perfect, or, 
as, incomplete or imperfect. In the phrases, "I am writing," "I was writ- 
ing," " I shall be be writing," imperfect, unfinished actions are signified. 
But the following examples, " I wrote," " I have written," " I had writ- 
ten," "1 shall have written," all denote complete perfect action. 

Of Conjugation. 

The conjugation (1) of a verb is the regular combination and arrange- 
ment of its several numbers, persons, moods and tenses. 

The Indicative (2) Mood has six tenses; namely, the present, the imper- 
fect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

INDICATIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular Number. Plural Number. 

I have, We have, 

Thou hast, Ye or you have, 

He, she or it, has or hath ; They have. 

QUESTIONS. 
(l) Whfit is Conjugation ? — (2) How many tenses has the Indicative Mood i 



68 ETYMOLOGY. 



IMPERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural, 

I had, We had, 

Thou hadst, Ye or you had, 

He, &c. had, They had. 

The Perfect Tense (1) is formed by prefixing the sign have, and its va- 
riations to the perfect participles ; thus, 

PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I have had, We have had, 

Thou hast had, Ye or you have had. 

He has had, They have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense (2) is formed by prefixing the sign had, and its 
variation, to the perfect participle ; thus, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 
SiDgular. Plural. 

I had had, We had had,"' 

Thou hadst had, Ye or you had had, 

He had had, They had had. 

The First Future Tense (3) is formed by prefixing the sign shall or will, 
and its variation, to the present tense ; thus, 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I shall or will have, We shall or will have, 

Thou shalt or wilt have, Ye or you shall or will have, 

He shall or will have, They shall or will have. 

The Second Future Tense (4) is formed by prefixing the signs shall or 
ivill have, and their variations, to the perfect participle ; thus, 

SECOND FUTURE TENSE. x 

Singular. Plural. 

I shall have had, We shall have had, 

Thou wilt have had, Ye or you will have had, 

He will have had, They will have had. 

QUESTIONS. 

^ (l) How is the perfect tense formed ?— (2) How is the pluperfect tense formed ? — (3) How is the 
first future tense formed ? — (4) How is the second future tense formed . ? Conjugate the verb Have 
in the indicative mood. 

The present and the imperfect tenses are called simple tenses, because 
they are formed without auxiliaries — the perfect, the pluperfect, the first 
future, and the second, are called compound tenses, because they are 
formed by the help of signs, or auxiliaries. 



ETYMOLOGY. 69 

Subjunctive Mood. 

The Subjunctive Mood (!) has six tenses ; namely, the present, the im- 
perfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, the first future, and the second. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 

PRESENT TENSE (2) INDICATIVE FORM. 

Singular Number. Plural Number. 

If J have, If we have, 

If thou hast, If ye or you have, 

If he, she, or it has, or hath, If they have. 

PRESENT TENSE (3) ELLIPTICAL FORM. 
Singular. Plural. 

If I ( )have,* Ifwe( ) have, 

If thou ( ) have, If ye or vou ( ) have, 

If he ( ) have, If they ( ) have. 

The remaining tenses (4) of the subjunctive mood (in all verbs except the 
neuter verb Be, which has two forms in the imperfect tense, as well as in the 
imperfect, see page 40,) are, in general, similar to the correspondent tenses 
of the indicative mood; with the addition to the verb, of a conjunction, 
expressed or implied, denoting a condition, motive, wish, supposition, &c. 

[It will be proper for the teacher to require his pupils to repeat all the tenses of this mood 
with a conjunction prefixed to each of them. See pages 30 and 31.] 



Potential Mood. 

The Potential Mood (5) has four tenses ; namely, the present, the imper- 
fect, the perfect, and the pluperfect. 

conjugation of the verb have. 
POTENTIAL MOOD. 

The Present Tense (6) is formed by prefixing the sign, may or can, and 
its variation, to the verb ; as, 

PRESENT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

I may or can have, We may or can have, 

Thou mayst or canst have, Ye or you may or can have, 

He may or can have, They may or can have. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How many Tenses has the Subjunctive Mood ? — (2) Give the conjugation of the present 
tense, indicative form.— (3) Give the elliptical form.— (4) How are the remaining tenses conjuga- 
ted ?— (5) How many tenses has the potential mood ? — (6) How is the present tense formed ? 

*This form of the subjunctive mood has should, or some other auxil- 
iary understood. 



I 



70 ETYMOLOGY. 



The Imperfect Tense (1) is formed by prefixing the sign, mighty could, 
would, or should, and its variation, to the Verb ; as, 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would or should 

have, have, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could, would, or 

shouldst have, should have, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should 
, have, have. 

The Perfect Tense (2) is formed by prefixing the signs, may, or can have, 
and their variations to the perfect participle ; as, 

PERFECT TENSE. 
Singular. Plural. 

J may or can have had, We may or can have had, 

Thou mayst or canst have had, Ye or you may or can have had, 

He may or can have had, They may or can have had. 

The Pluperfect Tense (3) is formed by prefixing the signs, might, could, 
would, or should have, and their variations, to the perfect participle ; as, 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

I might, could, would, or should We might, could, would, or should 

have had, have had, 

Thou mightst, couldst, wouldst, or Ye or you might, could would or 

shouldst have had, should have had, 

He might, could, would, or should They might, could, would, or should 

have had, have had. 



Infinitive Mood. 

The Infinitive Mood (4j has but two tenses ; namely, the present, and 
the perfect. The present tense (5) is formed by prefixing to, which is 
called the sign of the infinitive mood, to the verb ; as, to go, to run, to 
strike, &c. 

The perfect tense (6) is formed by prefixing to have, to the perfect par- 
ticiple ; as, to have gone, to have run, to have beaten. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 

INFINITIVE MOOD 

PRESENT TENSE. (7) PERFECT TENSE. 

To have. To have had. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How is the imperfect tense formed ?— (2) How is the perfect formed ?— (3) How is the plu- 
perfect formed ? — Conjugate the verb Have, through all the tenses. — (4) How many tenses has 
the infinitive mood •*— (5) How is the present formed ?— -(6) How is the perfect formed ? — Give the 
conjugation of the verb Have in the infinitive mood. 



I 



ETYMOLOGY. 71 

A verb (1) in the Infinitive Mood has no nominative case, and therefore, 
jt is unlimited in respect to number and person. Hence it is called the 
infinitive or unlimited mood. In all the other moods, the verb is attended 
by a nominative case, by which it is limited as to person and number. 

Imperative Mood. 

The Imperative Mood (2) has but one tense, and one person; namely, 
the present tense, and the second person. 

This form (3) of the verb is generally used for commanding ; as, depart 
thou ; and is therefore called the imperative mood ; but it is also used for 
exhorting, entreating, and permitting-, as, mind ye; let us stay; go in 
peace. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 
PRESENT TEINSE. 
Singular Number. Plural Number. 

Have thou, or do thou have ; Have ye or you, or do ye or you have. 

Of Auxiliary and Defective Verbs. 

Defective Verbs (4) are so called, because they can be used only in 
some of the moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these, (5) may, can, shall, will, must, ought, 
quoth, and their variations. 

[For the variation of these words on account of tense, &c. see page 28.] 

That the verbs must and ought have both a present and past significa- 
tion, appears from the following sentences; "I must own that I am to 
blame;" "He must have been mistaken ;" J' Speaking things which they 
ought not ;" " These ought ye to have done." 

The verbs (6) have, be, will, and do, when they are unconnected with a 
principal verb, expressed or understood, are not auxiliaries, but principal 
verbs ; as, " We have enough ;" " I am grateful ;" " He wills it to be so ;" 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) Why is this Mood called the infinitive mood ?— (2) How many tenses has the imperative 
mood ? — (3) What is the imperative mood used for ? — Give the conjugation of the imperative 
mood.— (4) Why are defective verbs so called?— (5) Repeat the principal of them.— (6) Are the 
verbs have he, will, and do, always used as auxiliaries ? 

It appears to be proper, for the information of the learners, to make a 
few observations in this place, on some of the tenses, &c. The first is, 
that, in the potential mood, some grammarians confound the present with 
the imperfect tense ; and the perfect with the pluperfect. But that they 
are really distinct, and have an appropriate reference to time, correspond- 
ent to the definitions of those tenses, will appear from a few examples ; " I 
wished him to stay, but he would not ;" " I could not accomplish the busi- 
ness in time ;" "It was my direction that he should submit ;" " He was ill, 
but I thought he might live ;" " I may have misunderstood him ;" " He can- 
not have deceived me;" "He might have finished the work sooner, but he 
could not have done it better." It must, however, be admitted, that, on 
some occasions, the auxiliaries, might, could, would, and should, refer 
■iso to present and to future time. 



* 



12 ETYMOLOGY. 



" They do as they please." In this view, they also have their auxiliaries \ 
as, " I shall have enough ;" '• I ivill be grateful." 

The Auxiliary and Defected Verbs seem not to be included in the com- 
mon definition of the verb. 

The peculiar force of the several auxiliaries will appear from the fol- 
lowing account of them. 

Ought (1) denotes duty ; as, he ought to be here. 

Have (2) denotes possession ; as, Children, have ye any meat ? — Have 
also denotes time ; as, we have performed our duty. 

May (3) implies liberty ; as, he may return if he desires it. May also 
implies doubt ; as, he may not be here, although I expect him. 

Can (4) implies power or ability ; as, he can pass the guards. 

Must (5) denotes necessity or compulsion ; as, he must pay the debt. 

Might (6) implies liberty ; as he might have passed the guards, had he 
been so disposed. Might also implies power ; as, he might have returned 
in spite of his keepers. 

Could (7) signifies power or ability ; as, he could have paid the demand. 

Would (8) implies determination ; as, he would go in. Also, inclina- 
tion ; as, I would that all would come to the knowledge of the truth. 

Should (9) denotes duty ; as, you should treat your superiors with de- 
ference. 

Shall, (10) in the first person, only foretells ; as, I shall go to-morrow. 
In the second and third persons, shall promises, commands, or threatens ; 
as, you or they shall be rewarded. Thou shalt not steal. 

Will, (11) in the first person, denotes promise ; as, I will not let thee go. 
In the second and third persons it foretells ; as, he will reward the right- 
eous. 

Of Regular and Irregular Verbs. 

Verbs (12) which form their imperfect tense, and perfect participle,by ad- 
ding to the verb ed, (or d only, when the verb ends in e,) are called regu- 
lar; as, 

PRESENT TENSE. (13) IMPERFECT TENSE. PERFECT PARTICIPLE. 

I destroy, I destroyed, Destroyed. 

I love, I loved, Loved. 

Verbs (14) which do not form their imperfect tense, and perfect partic- 
iple, by adding d, or ed, to the present, are irregular, 

Irregular Verbs are of various sorts. 

1. Such (15) as have the present and imperfect tenses, and perfect par- 
ticiple, the same ; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Cost, Cost, Cost.' 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) What does ought denote ? — (2) What does have denote ?-— (3) What does may imply ?— 
(4) What does can imply? — (5) What does must denote ?— (6) What does might imply ? — (7) What 
does could signify ? — (8) What does would imply ? — (9) What does should denote ? — .'10) What does 
5/iaZ/ imply ? — (11) What does will denote?— (12) What verbs are called regular ? — (13) Give an 
example of the regular verb in the present, imperfect, &c. — (14) What verbs are called irregular ?— 
(15) Give an example of the several sorts of irregular verbs ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

*>. Such as have the imperfect tense, and perfect participle, the same ; 
as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Sell, Sold, Sold. 

3. Such as have the imperfect tense, and the perfect participle, differ- 
ent; as, 

PRESENT. IMPERFECT. PERFECT PART. 

Blow, Blew, Blown. 

Many verbs become irregular by contraction ; as, " Feed, fed ; leave, 
left ;" others by the termination, en; as, " Fall, fell, fallen ;" others by the 
termination, g*ft£ ; as, " Buy, bought; teach, taught," <$cc. 

[For a list of the irregular verbs see page 26.] 

The compiler has not inserted, in the list of irregular verbs referred to, 
such verbs as are irregular only in familiar writing or discourse, and 
which are improperly terminated by t, instead of ed ; as, learnt, spelt, 
spilt, &c. These should be avoided in every sort of composition. It is, 
however, proper to observe, that some contractions of ed into t, are unex- 
ceptionable ; and others, the only established forms of expression ; as, 
crept, gilt, &c. ; and lost, felt, slept, &c. These allowable and necessary 
contractions must therefore be carefully distinguished by the learner, from 
those that are exceptionable. The words which are obsolete have also 
been omitted, that the learner might not be induced to mistake them for 
words in present use. Such are, wrearhen, drunken, holpen, molten, got- 
ten, holden, bounden, &c. ; and swang, wramj, slank, strawed, gat, brake, 
tare, ware, &c. 

Of Neuter and Passive Verbs. 

A Neuter Verb (1) implies being or existence, or a state of existence 
without action ; as, " I am in health ;" " He is weary of his life ;" " They 
rest from their labors." 

Some verbs (2) may be used either in an active or a neuter sense. In 
the sentence, " Here I rest" — (repose,) the verb rest is used in a neuter 
sense; but in the sentence, "Here I rest my hopes, 5 ' it is used in an active 
sense." 

A Passive Verb (3) is a verb that represents its subject or nominative 
as being (or having been) acted upon ; as, " I am persecuted by my enemies.' 1 
"He has been injured by slanderers." In its original application, passion 
signifies a suffering — (enduring.) The Crucifixion of our Saviour is for 
this reason called his Passion, that is, his suffering on the cross. From 
passion is derived passive. Hence the name of the class of verbs so de- 
nominated : the meaning and use of the word, has, however, been greatly 
extended. 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) What is a Neuter Verb ?— (2) Is the same verb used both iu an active and a neuter sense ?- 
3) What does a passive verb express ? 

10 



74 ETYMOLOGY. 



The Passive Verb (1) is formed by prefixing the neuter verb Be (or Am) 
or so7ne of its variations (art, is, was, wast, were, wert, or, been,) to the 
perfect participle of a transitive verb; as, lam loved— He is beaten—The 
coach is drawn. 

In the following sentences, a part of the neuter verb Be is prefixed to 
the perfect participle of an intransitive verb. The ship is arrived, the 
bird is flown ; such verbs (2) are intransitive verbs, in the passive form. 
Some writers on grammar reject this form of expression as incorrect, and 
write in its stead, " The bird has flown," &c.—(See conjugation of the neu- 
ter and passive verbs, pages 39, 40, and 41 J 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle (3) is a word derived from a verb, partaking of the nature 
of a verb and of an adjective. 

Participles (4) often become adjectives, and are placed before nouns to 
denote quality ; as, " A lying tongue ;" " A burning fever ;" " A loving 
child ;" " A moving spectacle ;" " A heated imagination ;" " A learned man." 
The words mark simply the qualities referred to, without any regard to 
time ; and may properly be called participial adjectives. 

When (5) preceded by an article, and adjective, or a noun, or pronoun? 
in the possessive case, participles become nouns; as, "The beginning ;" 
" A good understanding ;" " The chancellor's being attached to the king, 
secured his crown." 

There are (6) three Participles: namely, the Present or Active, the 
Perfect or Passive, and the Compound Perfect ; as, loving — loved* — hav- 
ing loved. 

Participles not only convey the notion of time ; but they also signify 
actions, and govern the cases of nouns and pronouns, in the same man- 
ner as verbs do. 

OF ADVERBS. 

An Adverb (7) is a word joined to a verb, or to a participle, to show 
the manner, time, or place in which the action is done; as, "He reads 
correctly ;" " He mentioned it before ;" " They labor here" 

[Adverbs are more frequently added to verbs, than to any other parts of speech, and therefore 
tltey are called adverbs.] 

Some (8) adverbs are compared, thus; soon, sooner, soonest ; often, of- 
tener, oftenest. Those ending in ly, are compared by more and most ; as. 
wisely, more wisely, most wisely." 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How is a passive verb formed?—.^) What kind of verbs are is flown— is arrived, &c.?— 
(3) What is a Participle ?— (4) Do participles become adjectives ?— (5) Do participles ever become 
nouns ?— (6) How many participles are there?— (7) What is an Adverb ?—( 3) How are adverbs 
compared ? 

*When this participle is joined to the verb to have, it is called perfect; 
when it is joined to the verb to be, or understood with it, it is denomina- 
ted passive. 



ETYMOLOGY 



75 



Adverbs seem (1; originally to have been contrive^ to express compen- 
diously in one word, what must otherwise have required two or more ; 
as, "He acted wisely," for, he acted with wisdom; "Prudently," for, with 
prudence ; " He did it here," for, he did it in this place. 

Adverbs, though very numerous, may be reduced to the following cass- 
cs, namely, 

Of Manner, Prudently, honestly, wisely, well, ill, &c. 
Time present, Now, to-day, &c. 
Time past, Before, already, lately, long ago, &c. 
Time future, Presently, immediately, to-morrow, &c. 
Time indefinite, Sometimes, seldom, always, &c. 
In a.place, Here, there, where, &c. 
To a place, Hither, thither, whither, &c. 
Towards a place, Hitherward, thitherward. 
From a place, Hence, thence, whence. 

Repetition of times definitely, Once, twice, thrice, again, &c. 
Repetition of times indefinitely, Often, seldom, frequently. 
Order, First, secondly, thirdly, &c. 
Quantity, Sufficiently, enough, &c. 
Negation, Nay, no, not, &c. 
Separation, Apart, separately, asunder, &c. 
Conjunction, Together, generally, universally, &c. 
Interrogation, Why, when, how, &c. 
Defect, Almost, nearly, &c. 
Preference, Rather, chiefly, especially, &e. 
Abatement, Scarcely, hardly, &c. 
Contingence, Perhaps, peradventure, possibly, &c. 
Certainty, or affirmation, Verily, truly, yea, yes, certainly. 
Comparison, More, most, less, worse, &c. 

Besides the adverbs already mentioned, there are many which are 
formed by a combination of several of the prepositions, with the adverbs 
of place, here, there, and where; as, (2) hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, 
thereto, whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby; herewith, therewith, where- 
with ; herein, therein, wherein ; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. 
where-for,) hereupon or hereon, thereupon or thereon, whereupon or 
whereon, &c. Except therefore, these are seldom used. 

In (3) some instances the preposition suffers no change, but becomes 
an adverb merely by its application; as when we say, "He rides about;" 
" He was near falling ;" " But do not after lay the blame on me." 

There are (4) also some adverbs, which are composed of nouns, and 
the letter a used instead of at, on, &c. ; as, aside, athirst, afoot, ahead, 
asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, aground, afloat, &c. 

The words (5) when and where, and all others of the same nature, such 
as, ivhence, whither, whenever, wherever, &c. may be properly called adver- 
bial conjunctions, because they participate the nature both of adverbs and 
conjunctions; of conjunctions, as they conjoin sentences; of adverbs, as 
they denote the attributes either of time or of place. 

QUESTIONS. 

r (1) For what purpose were adverbs contrived ?— Give an example of each kind of adverbs? — 

(2) Give examples of adverbs formed by a combination of adverbs of place and prepositions ?— 

(3) Do prepositions become adverbs ? — (4) Arc adverbs composed of nouns ? — (5) What words are 
called adverbial conjunctions ? 



76 ETYMOLOGY. 



It may be particularly observed with respect to the word therefore, that 
it is an adverb, when, without joining sentences, it only gives the sense of, 
for that reason. When it gives that sense, and also connects, it is a con- 
junction; as, "He is good, therefore he is happy." 

There are several combinations of short words which are used adver- 
bially, and which some grammarians do not analyze in parsing ; as, Not 
at all, a little while ago, to and fro, in vain, fyc. 

Or Helping Adverbs. 

A Helping-Adverb (1) is a word employed to aid an adverb, or another 
helping-adverb ; as, " He rides too fast ;" " He rides much too fast." 

Helping-adverbs, (2) very, quite, exceedingly, excessively, extremely, 
too much, &c. 

The same words are called helping-adjectives when they are employ- 
ed to aid adjectives ; as, " The house is too large ;" or another helping- 
adjective ; as, " The house is much too large." 

These words are, by some writers on grammar, called adverbs of de- 
gree. (See page 17.) 

OF PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun (3) is a word used instead of a noun, to avoid the too fre- 
quent repetition of the same word ; as, "The man is happy; he is benev- 
olent ; he is useful." 

[Pronoun comes from the Latin word ,pro-nomen, compounded of pro, for, and nomcn, a noun or 
name.] 

There are (4) four kinds of pronouns, viz. the Personal, the Relative, the 
Interrogative, and the Adjective Pronouns. 

Of Personal Pronouns. 

There are (5) five Personal Pronouns, viz. I, thou, he, she, and it; with 
their plurals, we, ye or you, they. 

Personal Pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case. 

The numbers of pronouns, like those of nouns, are two, the singular 
and the plural ; as, I, thou, he ; we, ye or you, they. 

Gender has respect only to the third person singular of the pronouns, 
he, she, it. He is masculine ; she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

The persons speaking and spoken to, being at the same time the sub- 
jects of the discourse, are supposed to be present ; from which, and other 
circumstances, their sex is commonly known, and needs not to be marked 
by a distinction of gender in the pronouns; but the third person or thing 
spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, it is necessary 
that it should be marked by a distinction of gender ; at least, when some 

QUESTIONS. 

(i) What is a Helping-Adverb ?— (2) Give a list of them.— (3) What is a Pronoun?— (4) How 
many kinds of pronouns are there ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 77 

particular person or thing is spoken of, that ought to be more distinctly 7 
marked; accordingly the pronoun singular of the third person has the 
three genders, he, she, it. 

Pronouns (1) have three cases ; the Nominative, the Possessive, and the 
Objective. 

The objective case of a pronoun has, in general, a form different from 
that of the nominative, or the possessive case. 



A Table of the Personal Pronouns in 


the Three Cases. 






Singular Number. 






First person. 

JSTom. I, (2) 
Poss. Mine, 
Obj. Me ; 


2d person, 

Thou, 
Thine, 
Thee ; 


. 3d per. mas. 

He, 
His, 

Him ; 

Plural Number. 


3d per. fern. 

She, 

Hers, 

Her; 


3dper.neu. 

It, 

Its, 

It. 


Nom. We, 
Poss. Ours, 
Obj. Us. 


Ye or Y( 

Yours, 

You. 


)U, Thev, 
Theirs, 
Them. 


They, 

Theirs, 

Them. 


Thev, 

Theirs, 

Them. 



Of the Relative Pronouns. 

Relative Pronouns (3) are such as relate, in general, to some word or 
phrase going before, which is thence called the antecedent ; they are, who, 
which, and that ; as, " The man is happy who lives virtuously."* 

What (4) is a kind of compound pronoun, including both the antecedent 
and the relative, and is equivalent to that and which ; as, " He praises what 
you dispraise ;" that is, he praises that ivhich you dispraise. 

Who (5) is applied to persons, ivhich to animals and inanimate tilings; 
as, " He is a friend, who is faithful in adversity ;" " The bird, which sung so 
sweetly, is flown ;" " This is the tree, which produces no fruit." 

That, (6) as a relative, is often used to prevent the too frequent repeti- 
tion of who and ivhich. It is applied to both persons and things ; as, " He 
that acts wisely deserves praise ;" " Modesty is a quality that highly adorns 
a woman." 

Who is of both numbers, and is thus declined ; 



Singular and Plural. 
Nominative, (6) 
Possessive, 
Objective, 


Who, 

Whose, 

Whom. 


QUESTIONS. 





(l) How many cases have Pronouns ?— (2) Repeat the table of personal pronouns f— (3) Whni 
are relative pronouns ?— (4) What is what equivalent to ?— (5) How is who applied f— (6) For what 
is that used i — (7) Decline the relative who. 

*The relative pronoun, when used interrogatively, relates to a word or 
phrase which is not antecedent, but subsequent, to the relative. 



78 ETYMOLOGY. 



Which, that, and what, are likewise of both numbers, but they do not vary 
their termination ; except that whose is sometimes used as the possessive 
ease of which ; as, " Is there any other doctrine ivhose followers are pun- 
ished ?" 

Who, which, and ivhat, have sometimes the words soever and ever annex- 
ed to them ; as, whosoever or ivhoever, whichsoever or whichever, whatsoever 
or whatever; but they are seldom used in modern style. 

The w 7 ord (1) that is sometimes a relative, sometimes a demonstrative 
pronoun, and sometimes a conjunction. (2) It is a relative, when it may 
be turned into who or which without destroying the sense ; as, " They that 
(who) reprove us, may be our best friends;" "From every thing thai 
(which) you see, derive instruction." (3) It is a demonstrative pronoun 
when it is followed immediately by a noun, to which it is either join- 
ed, or refers, and which it limits or qualifies ; as, " That boy is indus- 
trious ;" "That belongs to me ;" meaning, that book, that desk, &c. (4) It 
is a conjunction, when it joins sentences together, and cannot be turned 
into wha or ivhich, without destroying the sense ; as, " Take care that every 
day be well employed ;" "I hope he will believe that I have not acted im- 
properly." 

Who, ivhich, and what, (5) are called Interrogatives, when they are used 
in asking questions ; as, " Who is he ?" " Which is the book ?" " What art 
thou doing ?" 

Of the Adjective Pronouns. 

Adjective Pronouns (6) are of a mixed nature, participating the pro- 
perties both of pronouns and adjectives. 

The Adjective Pronouns (7) may be subdivided into five sorts, namely, 
the Possessive, the Distributive, the Demonstrative, the Indefinite, and the 
Interrogative. 

The possessive (8) are those which relate to possession or property. 
There are seven of them ; viz. my, thy, his, her, our, your, their. 

The following sentences exemplify the possessive pronouns. — "My les- 
son is finished ; Thy books are defaced ; He loves his studies ; She per- 
forms her duty; We own our faults; Your situation is distressing; I ad- 
mire their virtues." 

The following are examples of the possessive cases of the personal pro- 
nouns. — " This desk is mine ; the other is thine ; These trinkets are his ; 
those are hers ; This house is ours, and that is yours ; Theirs is very com- 
modious." 

Self is added to possessives; as, myself, yourselves; and sometimes to 
personal pronouns ; as, himself, itself, themselves. It then, like own, ex- 
presses emphasis and opposition; as, "I did this myself ;" that is, "not 
another ;" or it forms a reciprocal pronoun ; as, " We hurt ourselves by 
vain rage." 

QUESTIONS. 

(1) How is the word that construed ?— (2) When is it a relative ?— (3) When a demonstrative ?— 
(4) When a conjunction ?— (5) What words are called interrogative pronouns ?— (6) What are ad- 
jective pronouns ?— (7) How are adjective pronouns subdivided ?— (8) Which are the possessive ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 79 



Himself, themselves, are now used in the nominative case, instead of 
hisself, theirselves, as, "He came himself;" " He himself shall do this ;" 
" They performed it themselves." 

2. The distributive (1) are those which denote the persons or things that 
make up a number, as taken separately and singly. They are, each, every, 
either; as, "Each of his brothers is in a favorable situation ;" " Every man 
must account for himself;" "I have not seen either of them." 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of 
the two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of 
them all taken separately. This pronoun was formerly used apart from 
its noun, but it is now constantly annexed to it, except in legal proceed- 
ings ; as in the phrase, "All and every of them." 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signifies 
the one or the other. To say, " either of the three," is therefore im- 
proper. 

JYeither imports "not either;" that is, not one nor the other ; as, "Neither 
of my friends was there." 

The demonstrative (2) are those which precisely point out the sub- 
jects to which they relate ; this and that, these and those, former and latter, 
are of this class ; as, " This is true charity; that is only its image." 

The indefinite (3) are those which express their subjects in an inde- 
finite or general manner. The following are of this kind ; some, other, 
any, one, all, such, &c. 

Of these pronouns, only the words one and other are varied. One 
has a possessive case, which it forms in the same maimer as nouns ; as, 
one, one's. This word has a general signification, meaning people at 
large; and sometimes also a peculiar reference to the person who is 
speaking ; as, " One ought to pity the distresses of mankind." " One is 
apt to love one's self." This word is often used, by good writers, in the 
plural number; as, "The great ones of the world ;" "The boy wounded 
the old bird, and stole the young ones;" "My wife and the little ones are 
in good health." 

Other is declined in the following manner : 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Other, (4) Others, 

Poss. Other's, Others', 

Obj. Other, Others. 

The plural others is only used when apart from the noun to which it 
refers, whether expressed or understood ; as, " When you have perused 
these papers, I will send you the others" "He pleases some, but he dis- 
gusts others" When this pronoun is joined to nouns, either singular or 
plural, it has no variation; as, "the other man;" "the other men." 

The word another (7) is composed of the indefinite article prefixed to 
the word other. 

I 

QUESTION. 

(1) Which are the distributive ?~ (2) Which are the demonstrative ? — (3) Which are the indeliii- 
ite ? — (4) Decline the pronoun other. 



80 ETYMOLOGY. 



None is used in both numbers ; as, "None is so deaf as he that will not 
hear;" "None of those are equal to these." It seems originally to have 
signified, according to its derivation, not one, and therefore to have had 
no plural ; but there is good authority for the use of it in the plural num- 
ber; as, "None that go unto her return again." — Prov. ii. 19. 

The (1) Interrogative are which and what, when prefixed to nouns ; as, 
" What time did he arrive ?" " Which house did he occupy ?" 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction (2) is a part of speech that is chiefly used to connect 
sentences ; so as, out of two or more sentences, to make but one. It some- 
times connects only words. 

Conjunctions (3) are principally divided into two sorts, the Copulative 
and the Disjunctive, 

The Conjunction Copulative (4) serves to connect or to continue a sen- 
tence, by expressing an addition, a supposition, a cause, &c. ; as, "He and 
his brother reside in London ;" " I will go if he will accompany me ;" 
"You are happy, because you are good." 

The Conjunction Disjunctive (5) serves, not only to connect and con- 
tinue the sentence, but also to express opposition of meaning in different 
degrees ; as, " Though he was frequently reproved, yet he did not reform ;" 
" They came with her, but they went away without her." 

The following is a list of the principal Conjunctions. 
The Copulative. (6) And, if, that, both, then, since, for, because, there- 
fore, wherefore. 

The Disjunctive. (7) But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, unless, either, 
neither, yet, notwithstanding. 

The same word is occasionally used both as a conjunction and as an 
adverb ; and sometimes, as a preposition. " I rest then upon this argu- 
ment;" then is here a conjunction; in the following phrase, it is an ad- 
verb; " He arrived then, and not before." " I submitted ; for it was vain 
to resist ;" in this sentence, for is a conjunction ; in the next, it is a pre- 
position ; " He contended for victory only." In the first of the following 
sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the second, it is a preposition ; and 
in the third, an adverb ; "Since we must part, let us do it peaceably;" 
"I have not seen him since that time ;" " Our friendship commenced long 
.since." 

Relative Pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences ; 
as, "Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his command- 
ments." 

Conjunctions very often unite sentences, when they appear to unite 
only words ; as, in the following instances ; " Duty and interest forbid 
vicious indulgences:" "Wisdom or folly governs us." Each of these 
forms of expression contains two sentences, namely ; " Duty forbids vi- 

QUESTIONS. 

(l) Which are the interrogative adjective pronouns ? — (2) What is a Conjunction ? — '3) How ar« 
conjunctions divided ? — (4) What is the office of a copulative conjunction ? — (5) VVhat of a disjunc- 
tive ?— (6) Repeat the copulative conjunctions.— (7) Repeat the disjunctive. 



ETYMOLOGY. 81 

cious indulgences ; interest forbids vicious indulgences ;" "Wisdom gov- 
erns us, or folly governs us." 

As there are many conjunctions and connective phrases appropriated 
to the coupling of sentences, that are never employed in joining the mem- 
bers of a sentence ; so there are several conjunctions appropriated to the 
latter use, which are never employed in the former ; and some that, are 
equally adapted to both those purposes; as, again, further, beside, &c. of 
the first kind; than, lest, unless, that, so that, &c. of the second; and but, 
and, for, therefore, &c. of the last. 



OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions (1) serve to connect words with one another, and to 
show the relation between them. They are, for the most part, put before 
nouns and pronouns, as, 'He went from London to York;" " She is above 
disguise ;" "They are instructed by him." 

Preposition comes from the Latin Pre-pono, which signifies to put before, and prepositions are 
so called because the} 7 are put before nouns and pronouns. 

A list of the principal prepositions. (2) Above, agoAnst, about, after, a- 
midsL across, among, athwart, at — behind, below, before, beside, beneath, be- 
tween, betwixt, beyond, by — concerning — down, during — except— for, from — 
in, into — near — of, on or upon, over — round or around — since — through, 
throughout, till, touching, toward — under, underneath, up — within, without — 
out of — over against — next to — according to — instead of, and some other 
words. 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to uphold, 
to invest, to overlook ; and this composition sometimes gives a new sense 
to the verb; as, to understand, to withdraw, to forgive. But in English, 
the preposition is more frequently placed after the verb, and separately 
from it, like an adverb, in which situation it is not less apt to afreet the 
sense of it, and to sive it a new meaning ; and may still be considered as 
belonging to the verb, and as a part of it. As, to cast, is to throw ; but to 
cast up, or to compute an account, is quite a different tiling ; thus, to fall 
on, to bear out, to give over, &c. So that the meaning of the verb, and 
the propriety of the phrase, depend on the preposition subjoined. 

In the composition of many words, there are certain syllables employ- 
ed, which grammarians have called inseparable prepositions ; as, be, con, 
mis, &c. in bedeck, conjoin, mistake. 

One great use of prepositions, in English, is, to express those relations. 
which, in some languages, are chiefly marked by cases, or the different 
endings of nouns. (See page 53.) The necessity and use of them will 
appear from the following examples. If we say, " He writes a pen ;" 
"They ran the river ;" " The tower fell the Greeks ;" "Lambeth is West- 
minster-abbey;" there is observable, in each of these expresions, either a 
total want of connexion ; or such a connexion as produces falsehood or 
nonsense ; and it is evident, that, before they can be turned into sense, 
he vacancy must be filled up -by some connecting word; as thus, "He 

QUESTIONS. 

(%) What is a Preposition ?— (2) Give a list of the principal prepositions. 

11 



82 ETYMOLOGY 



writes with a pen ;" " They ran towards the river ;" " The tower fell upon 
the Greeks ;" " Lambeth is over against Westminster-abbey." We see 
by these instances, how prepositions may be necessary to connect those 
words, which in their signification are not naturally connected. 

Prepositions, in their original and literal acceptation, seem to have de- 
noted relations of place ; but they are now used figuratively to express 
other relations. For example, as they who are above have in several 
respects the advantage of such as are below. Prepositions expressing high 
and low places, are used for superiority and inferiority in general , as, 
" He is above disguise :" " We serve under a good master ;" " He rules 
over a willing people ;" " We should do nothing beneath our character." 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections (I) are words thrown in between the parts'of a sentence, to 
express the passions or emotions of the speaker; as, "Oh ! I have aliena- 
ted my friend;" "Alas! I fear for life;" "O virtue! how amiable thou 
art!" 

The English Interjections, as well as those of other languages, are com- 
prised within a small compass. They are of different sorts, according to 
the different passions which they serve to express. Those which intimate 
earnestness or grief, are, O! oh! ah! alas! Such as are expressive of 
contempt, are, pish ! tush! of wonder, heigh ! really! strange! of calling, 
hem! ho! soho! of aversion or disgust, foh ! fie! away! of a call of the 
attention, to ! behold! hark! of requesting siienvefiush ! hist ! of salutation, 
welcome! hail! all hail! Besides these, several others, frequent in the 
mouths of the multitude, might be enumerated ; but, in a grammar of a 
cultivated tongue, it is unnecessary to expatiate on such expressions of 
passion, as are scarcely worthy of being ranked among the branches of 
artificial language. 

INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

The^e are words chiefly derived from other languages. They have, 
like all other words, though seldom employed singly, a separate and dis- 
tinct meaning of their own. As the most difficult, but most necessary 
part of study (to use the words of a great philosopher) is to find out and 
fix the meaning of words, the following explanation of what are called 
inseparable prepositions or particles, is particularly worthy of the atten- 
tion of the learner.— A few of these words are still used separately. 

A signifies on or in; as a-foot, a-shore, a-bed; that is, on foot, on shore, 

in bed. . „ „ L x . 

After denotes posteriority of time ; as, afternoon, after-times. 

Be is said to signify about; as, besprinkle, bestir, that is, stir about; also, 
for and before, as^ bespeak, that is, speak for or before. 

"The true character of be," says Mr. Grant, "seems to be, to communi- 
cate or deeply involve in,an action, a thing, or quality ; ns,bedaub, bewilder, 
bewail, beloved Be has the same general effect as all the other prefixes 

QUESTION. 

(l) What is an Interjection ? 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 



or affixes, it fits the word to which it is added, to be joined to other 
words. 

For implies negation or privation ; as, forbid, forsake, that is, not bid, not 
seek. 

Fore signifies before ; as, see, foresee, that is, see before-hand, fore -foot, 
fore-father. The opposite is hind, as hind-foot. 

Gain is a contraction of against; as, gain-say, or contradict. 

Miss denotes defect, or eiror ; as, take, mistake, take wrongly. This word 
is said to be derived from the Saxon wit's and Gothic missa, a fault or de- 
fect ; hence probably the English to miss, or to fail, and amiss, and hence 
also the French mes, as in meconnoitre, to forget. 

In has its usual signification, in instil, imprison, inlay, imprint. 

Over denotes eminence, superiority, inversion, or transition ; as, come, 
overcome, overthrew, oversee, overlook, also excess, as overhasty, or too hasty. 
Figuratively, overhear, overtake. 

Out signifies excess or superiority, as out-do, out-run. 

Un, before an adjective, denotes negation or privation; as, unworthy, 
that is, not worthy. But, before verbs it denotes the undoing or the de- 
stroying energy or act; as, unsay, that is, retract what you have said. 

tip denotes motion upwards, as start, upstart; rest in a higher place, as, 
hold, uphold; sometimes subversion, as, set, upset. 

With signifies against ; as, withstand, that is, stand against ; from or 
hack, as, withhold, that is, hold from or back; withdraw, or draw back. 

Under implies inferiority or defect, as, under-do, undersell. Figurative- 
ly, undergo, understand, undertake. 

The following are borrowed from the French counter, en, enter, sur. 

Counter denotes against; as, counterbalance, that is, balance against. 

En or em, the same as in; enrich, encourage, embroider ; enrage, that is, 
put in a rage. 

Enter denotes between ; enterline (interline) that is, put a line between; 
cnterlace, that is, intermix ; enterprise, something taken in hand, or between 
hands. 

Sur denotes over or addition; as, surpass, that is, exceed ; surname, sur- 
loin. 

The Latin prepositions used in the composition of English words are, 
a, ab, or abs, ad, ante, con, circum, contra, de, di, dis, e, or ex, extra, in, inter, 
intro, ob, per, post, pre, pro, preter, re, retro, se, sub, subter, super, trans, 
ultra. 

A, ab, abs, denote from or away ; as, abstain, that is, keep from; abuse 
that is, from the use, wrong use. 

Ad signifies to or at ; as, adhere, that is, stick to. 

Ante signifies before ; as, antecedent or going before. 

Circum signifies about ; as, circumspect, that is, looking about. 

Com, con, co, col, from cum, signify together; as, condole, that is, lament 
together ; co-operate, that is, work together. 

Contra denotes against; as, contradict, that is, speak against. 

De signifies down or from ; as, deject or cast down ; depart, or part from. 

Di, dis, signify asunder ; as, distract or draw asunder. In many words 
dis seems to denote negation or privation; as, disinter, that is, unhury ; 
displease, that is, not please. 

The French say, de-eourager, to dts-courage. Their preposition is des 

E, ex, out of, as, eject or cast out ; exclude, or shut out. 

Extra, without, beyond, out of; as, extravagant, or wandering beyond. 



84 



ETYMOLOGY. 



In, before an adjective, like im, denotes privation ; as, indecent, not de- 
cent Before a verb it has its simple meaning. 

Inter signifies among or between ; as, intervene, or come behveen. In in- 
terdict, or forbid, it has a negative effect. 

Intro denotes to within ; as, introduce, or lead in. 

Oh denotes opposition; as, object, or cast against; obstacle; that [^some- 
thing in opposition. 

Per signifies through or thoroughly; as, pervade; that is, pass through, 
perfect; that is, thoroughly done. 

Pre, before ; as, prepare, or procure before-hand. 
Post, after ; as, post-script, or written after. 

Pro denotes forth, forward ; as, promote, or move forward, produce, or 
bring forth. 

Preter signifies past or beyond; as, preternatural, or beyond the course 
of nature. 

Re signifies again, or back ; as, reprint, or print again, repay or joa?/ 
back. y 

Retro signifies backwards ; as, retrograde, or going backwards. 
Se, apart, or without; as, £o secrete, or pw£ aside, secure, or without care. 
Sub signifies under; as, subscribe, or write under. 

Subter signifies under ; as, subterfluous, or flowing under ; subterfuge, or 
escape under. 

Super, above, or over ; as, superadd, add, over, or above. 
Traits or £ra signifies over or beyond; as, transgress, go over or beyond; 
it denotesykwi o?ie j»£ace i'o another-, as, transplant, transpose, fyc. ■ 
Ultra signifies beyond; as, wZ£ra marine, or beyond the sea. 
The Greek prepositions and participles compounded with English 
words are «, amphi, anii, apo, hype?', dia, hypo, epi, meto, para, peri, syn, 
hemL 

A signifies privation ; as, anarchy, or the state of being without govern- 
ment. 

Amphi, both, or the two ; as, amphibious, or the state of living in two ways. 
Anti, against ; as, antidote, or something given against poison. 
Apo, from; as, apogee, or from the earth. 

Hyper, over, and above/, as, hypercritical, that is, over, or too critical. 
Dia, through', as, diaphoresis, or a wearing through, perspiring. 
Hypo, under, implying ; as, hypocrite, or a person concealing his real cha- 
racter. 

Epi, upon ; as, epidemic, or upon the people. 

Meta, denotes change, or transmutation ; as, metamorphose, or change the 
shape. 

Para, beyond, on one side ; thus, paragraph ; that is, a writing by the 
side, (originally used to mean a marginal note) paradox; that is, an opin- 
ion beyond, or on one side,3iii extraordinary opinion ; paraphrase ; that is, a 
phrase that may be placed by the side, an equivalent phrase. 

Peri, about, as, periphrases, or a speech in a round about way, a circumlo- 
cution. 

Syn, sym, syl, with or together ; as, synod, or meeting together, sympathy, 
or feeling together. 

Hemi, as well as semi and demi, denotes half, hemisphere, or half of a 
sphere; semi-circle, or half a circle; demi-god, half a god. 



mk 



ETYMOLOGY. 85 



OF DERIVATION. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; viz. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes "lover;" 
from " to visit, visiter ;" from " to survive, surviver ;" &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from ad- 
verbs; as, from the noun salt, comes "to salt;" from the adjective warm, 
"to warm;" and from the adverb forward, "to forward." Sometimes 
they are formed by lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; 
as, from "grass, to graze;" sometimes by adding en; as, from "length, 
to lengthen;" especially to adjectives; as, from "short to shorten ; bright 
to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, in the following manner; Adjec- 
tives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y; as, from 
"health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy; might, mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns, by adding ful ; 
as, from "jo} r , joyful; sin, sinful; fruit, fruitful," &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding less ; as, 
from "worth, worthless; care, careless ; joy, joyless," &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns, by adding ly, as, 
from "man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the termi- 
nation ness ; as, "white, whiteness; swift, swiftness;" sometimes by ad- 
ding ih or t, and making a small change in some of the letters ; as, "long, 
length ; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or 
changing le into ly. and denote the same quality as the adjectives from 
which thev are derived ; as, from " base," comes "basely ;" from " slow, 
slowly;" from "able, ably." 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, 
that it would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enumerate 
them. 



•jfc 



SYNTAX 



The third part of grammar is Syntax, which treats of the agreement 
and construction of words in a sentence. 

A sentence is an assemblage of words, forming a complete sense. 

Sentences are of two kinds, simple and compound. 

A simple sentence has in it but one subject, and one finite* verb ; as. 
" Life is short." 

A compound sentence consists of two or more simple sentences con- 
nected together ; as, " Life is short, and art is long." " Idleness produces 
want, vice, and misery." 

As sentences themselves are divided into simple and compound, so the 
members of sentences may be divided likewise into simple and compound 
members ; for whole sentences, whether simple or compounded, may be- 
come members of other sentences, by means of some additional connex- 
ion ; as in the following example ; " The ox knoweth his owner, and the 
ass his master's crib ; but Israel doth not know, my people do not con- 
sider." This sentence consists of two compounded members, each of 
which is subdivided into two simple members, which are properly called 
clauses. 

There are three sorts of simple sentences ; the explicative, or ex- 
plaining; the interrogative, or asking; the imperative, or command- 
ing. 

An explicative sentence is, when a thing is said to be or not to be, to 
do or not to do, to suffer or not to suffer, in a direct manner ; as, " I am ; 
thou writest; Thomas is loved." If the sentence be negative, the adverb 
not is placed after the auxiliary, or after the verb itself when it has no 
auxiliary; as, "I did not touch him;" or, " I touched him not." 

In an interrogative sentence, or when a question is asked, the nomina- 
tive case follows the principal verb or the auxiliary ; as, " "^JTas it he ?" 
" Did Alexander conquer the Persians ?" 

In an imperative sentence, when a thing is commanded to be, to do, to 
suffer, or not, the nominative case likewise follows the verb or the auxil- 
iary; as, "Go, thou traitor!" "Do thou go;" "Haste ye away;" unless 
the verb let be used ; as, "Let us be gone." 

A phrase is two or more words rightly put together, making some- 
times part of a sentence, and sometimes a whole sentence. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are, the subject, the attribute, 
and the object. 

The subject is the thing chiefly spoken of; the attribute is the thing or 
action affirmed or denied of it; and the object is the thing affected by 
such action. 

The nominative denotes the subject, and usually goes before the verb 
or attribute ; and the word or phrase, denoting the object, follows the 

* Finite verbs are those to which number and person appertain. Verbs 
in the infinitive mood have no respect to number or person. 



SYNTAX. 87 

verb ' y as, " A wise man governs his passions." Here, a wise man is the 
subject; governs, the attribute, or thing affirmed; and his passions, the 
object. 

Syntax principally consists of two parts, concord and government. 

Concord is the agreement which one word has with another, in gender, 
number, case, or person. 

Government is that power which one part of speech has over another, 
in directing its mood, tense, or case. 

To produce the agreement and right disposition of words in a sentence. 
The following rules and observations should be carefully studied. 



ADJECTIVES. 

RULE I. 

Every Adjective belongs to some noun, expressed or understood. 

Note I. Adjectives (in prose) should not be used for adverbs ; as, " Indifferent honest 5 excel- 
lent well ; miserable poor ;" instead of " Indifferently honest ; excellently well ; miserably poor." 
t; He behaved himself conformable to that great example j" "conformably." "Endeavor to live 
hereafter suitable to a person in thy station 5" "suitably." "I can never think so very mean of 
him;" "meanly." "He describes this river agreeable to the common reading-," "agreeably." 
"Agreeable to my promise, I now write ;" " agreeably." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule I. 

She writes very neat. 

[Not proper, because the adjective neat is improperly used to express the manner in which the 
action write is performed. But according to Note 1, under Rule I. adjectives should not bt used 
for adverbs. Therefore neat should be neatly 5 thus, "She writes very neatly."] 

His property is near exhausted. They lived conformable to the rules 
of prudence. He reasons very clear. He was extreme beloved. He 
speaks very fluent, he reads excellent, but does not think very coherent. 
He behaved himself submissive. I cannot think so mean of him. He 
was scarce gone when you arrived. 

Note II. When united to an adjective or helping adverb not ending in ly, the word exceeding 
has/# added to it-, as, "exceedingly great ; exceedingly well ;" but when it is joined to a helping 
adverb or an adjective having that termination, the ly is omitted 5 as, " Some men think exceed- 
ing clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly." " She appeared, on this occasion, exceeding lovely." 
" He acted in this business bolder than was expected." " They behaved the noblest, because they 
were disinterested." They should have been "more boldly," "most nobly."— The adjective pronoun 
such is often misapplied 5 as, " He was such an extravagant young man, that he spent his whole 
patrimony in a few years ;" it should be, " so extravagant a young man." " I never before saw 
such large trees ;" "saw trees so large." When we refer to the species or nature of a thing, the 
word such is properly applied ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found :" but when degree is signified. 
we use the word so ; as, " So bad a temper is seldom found." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule I. 
They rejected his advice and conducted themselves exceeding-ly indis- 
creetly. He is a person of great abilities and exceeding upright. The 
conspiracy was easier discovered from its being known to many. — * 
Vot being fully acquainted with the subject, he could affirm no stronger 



88 



SYNTAX. 



than he did. Such an amiable disposition will secure universal regard. 
Such distinguished virtues seldom occur. 

Note III. Adverbs should not be used as adjectives ; thus, " They were seen wandering about 
solitarily and distressed 5" "solitary ." "The study of Syntax should be previously to that of 
punctuation:" "previous."* 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule I. 

Conformably to their vehemence of thought was their vehemence of 
gesture. We should implant in the minds of youth, such seeds and prin- 
ciples of piety and virtue, as are likely to take soonest and deepest root. 
Use a little wine for thy stomach's sake and thine often infirmities. He 
addressed several exhortations to them suitably to their circumstances. 

Note IV. Comparative terminations and helping adjectives, should not be applied to adjectives 
that are not susceptible of comparison 5 and double comparatives and superlatives should be 
avoided •{ such as "A worser conduct 5" " On lesser hopes-," " A more serener temper." They 
should be, " Worse conduct;" "Less hopes;" " A more serene temper." 

Examples to be connected under Note 4, Rule I. 

'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. The 
tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it car- 
ries. The nightingale sings ; iters is the most sweetest voice in the grove. 
The Most Highest hath created us for his glory, and our own happiness. 
The Supreme Being is the most wisest, the most powerfullest, and the 
most best of beings. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and 
should be his chief desire. His assertion was more true than that of his 
opponent ; nay, the words of the latter were most untrue. His work is 
perfect : his brother's more perfect ; and his father's the most perfect of all. 



* Young persons who study grammar, find it difficult to decide, in particular constructions, 
whether an adjective or an adverb ought to be used. A few observations on this point, may serve 
to intbrm their judgment, and direct their determination. — They should carefully attend to the 
definitions of the adjective and the adverb; and consider whether, in the case in question, quality 
or manner is indicated. In the former case an adjective is proper ; in the latter, an adverb. A 
number of examples will illustrate this direction, and prove useful on other occasions. 

She looks cold— She looks coldly on him. 

He feels warm — He feels warmly the insult offered to him. 

He became sincere and virtuous — He became sincerely virtuous. 

She lives free from care — He lives freely at another's expense. 

Harriet always appears neat — She dresses neatly. 

Charles has grown great by his wisdom — He has grown greatly in reputation. 

They now appear happy — They now appear happily in earnest. 

The statement seems exact — The statement seems exactly in point. 

The verb to fee, in all its moods and tenses, generally requires the word immediately connected 
with it to be an adjective, not an adverb ; and consequently when this word can be substituted for 
any other, without varying the sense or the construction, that other verb must also be connected 
with an adjective. The following sentences elucidate these observations. " This is agreeable to 
our interest; That behaviour was not suitable to his station; Rules should be conformable to 

is is is 

sense." "The rose smells sweet; How sweet the hay smells ; How delightful the country appears ! 

are are was 

How pleasant the fields look ' The clouds look dark ; How black the sky looked ! The apple 

is were is 

tastes sour ! How bitter the plums tasted ! He feels "happy." In all these sentences, we can, with 
perfect propriety, substitute some tenses of the verb to foe, for the other verbs. But in the following 
sentences Ave cannot do this: "The dog smells disagreeably ; George feels exquisitely; How 
pleasantly 7 she looks at us !" 

The directions contained in this note are offered as useful, not as complete and unexceptionable. 
Anomalies in language every where encounter us; but we must not reject rules because they are 
attended with exceptions. / 



SYNTAX. 89 

Note V. When the comparative degree of an adjective is used, the latter term of comparison 
should not include the former; and when the superlative is used, the latter term should never 
exclude the former. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule I. 

Eve was the fairest of all her daughters. Profane swearing is, of all 
other vices, the most inexcusable. A talent of this kind would, perhaps, 
prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. He spoke with so much pro- 
priety, that I understood him the best of all the others, who spoke on the 
subject. * 

Note VI. The personal pronoun them should never be used in the place of the adjective pro- 
noun those ; as, "Give me them books j" instead (if "Give me those books." 



Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule I. 

Go and ask for them articles. How many of them apples did you pur- 
chase? Which of them three men came to his assistance ? I will give 
them two quills. 



Note VII. The demonstrative this and these relate to the things last mentioned, or nearest ; that 
and those to things first mentioned, or farthest off. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule I. 
Religion raises men above themselves ; irreligion sinks them beneath 
the brutes; that, binds them down to a poor, pitiable speck of perishable 
earth ; this, opens for them a prospect to the skies. 

"Farewell my friends ! farewell my foes ! 
My peace with these, my love with those !" 

Note VIII. The adjective pronouns this and that, these and those, should agree in number, with 
the nouns to which they are added j as, "These three years," not, "This three years." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 8, Rule I. 
These kind of indigencies soften and injure the mind. Instead of im- 
proving yourselves, you have been playing this two hours. Those sort 
of favors did real injury, under the appearance of kindness. 

Note IX. The adjective pronouns each, every, either, (and neither,) agree with pronouns and 
verbs in the singular number only ; as, "Eachof you has his friends." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 9, Rule I. 

Each of them in their turn receive the benefits to which they are enti- 
tled. By discussing what relates to each particular, in their order, we 
shall better understand the subject. Every person, whatever be their 
station, are bound by the duties of morality and religion. Every leaf, 
every twig, every drop of water, teem with life. Every man's heart and 
temper is productive of much inward joy or bitterness. Whatever he un- 
dertakes, either his pride or his folly disgust us. Every man and every 
woman were numbered. Neither of those men seem to have any idea 
that their opinions may be ill founded. 

Note X. The adjective pronouns either and neither, must be used in reference to two 'things 
only ; when more are referred to, any and none should be used ; as, "Any of the three," not u El- 
iher of the three •," "None of the four, 1 ' not "Neither of the four.*' 

12 



90 SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 10, Rule 1. 

Have you recited either of the ten commandments this morning? He 
presented five copies, but neither of them were received. 

. Note XL When the adjective is necessarily plural, the noun to which it belongs must be plu- 
ral also ; as, "Twenty pound," not "Twenty pound." There are, however, some exceptions to 
this •, as, "A hundred head of cattle," &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 11, Rule I. 

The chasm made by the earthquake was twenty foot broad, and one 
hundred fathom in depth. 

Note XII. The noun means, has the same form in both numbers ; it should therefore be used 
with an adjective pronoun of the singular or plural number, as the sense requires. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 12, Rule I. 

Charles was extravagant, and by this mean became poor and despica- 
ble. It was by that ungenerous mean that he obtained his end. Though 
a promising measure, it is a mean which I cannot adopt. This person 
embraced every opportunity to display his talents ; and by these means 
rendered himself ridiculous. Joseph was industrious, frugal and discreet ; 
and by this means obtained property and reputation. 

Note XIII. The comparative degree of an adjective can be used only in reference to two ob- 
jects ; as, " He is the taller of the two." The superlative degree has reference to three or more ; 
as, "He is the youngest of the twelve." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 13, Rule I. 

He is the strongest of the two, but not the wisest. Trisyllables are often 
accented on the former syllable. 

Note XIV. When a noun is attended by two or more adjectives, that which expresses the 
most distinguishing quality should be placed next to the noun j as "A poor old man," not "An old 
poor man." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 14, Rule 1. 
He spoke in a distinct enough manner to be heard by the whole assem- 
bly. Thomas is equipped with a new pair of shoes, and a new pair of 
gloves ; he is the son of an old rich man. The two first in the row are 
cherry trees ; the two others are pear trees. 



ARTICLES. 
RULE II. 

The Article refers to its noun or pronoun in limitation. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the singular number only, individually or collectively ; 
as, "A christian, an intidel, a score, a thousand. The definite article, the, may agree with nouns 
in the singular and plural number •, as, "The garden, the houses, the stars." 

The articles are often properly omitted ; when used, they should be justly applied, according to 
their distinct nature •, as, " Gold is corrupting ; the sea is green •, a lion is bold." If I say, " He be- 
lraved with a little reverence," my meaning is positive. If I say, " He behaved with little reve- 



SYNTAX. 9i 

rence," my meaning is negative. And these two are by no means the same, or to be used in the 
same cases. By the former, I rather praise a person ; by the latter, I dispraise him. For the sake 
of this distinction, which is a very useful one, we may better bear the seeming impropriety of the 
article before nouns of number. AVhen I say, "There were few men with him," I speak dimin- 
utively, and mean to represent tftem as inconsiderable ; whereas, when I say, ' There were a few 
men with him, I evidently intend to make the most of them. It is correct to say, with the arti- 
cle, "He is in a great hurry," but not " in great hurry." And yet, in this expression, "He is in 
great haste," the article should be omitted 5 as, it would be improper to say, " He is in a great 
haste." A nice discernment, and accurate attention to the best usage are necessary to direct us, 
on these occasions. 

Note I. When a noun or pronoun is used in an unlimited sense the article should be omitted ; 
as, " Man is the noblest work of creation," not "A man," &c. The articles are omitted before 
nouns that imply the different virtues, vices, passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &c. 
They are not prefixed to proper names; as, "Washington," "Jefferson," (because those of them- 
selves denote determinate individuals, or particular things,) except for the sake of distinguishing 
a particular family ; as, "He is a Howard, or of the family of the 'Howards 5" or by way of emi- 
nence j as, " Every man is not a Newton 5" or when some noun is understood ; as, " He sailed 
down the (river) Thames, in the (ship) Brittania." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule II. 

Reason was given to a man to control his passions. 

[Not proper, because the article an is used before man, which should be used in its widest sense. 
But, according to Note 1st, Rule 2d, "tVhen a noun or pronoun is used in an unlimited sense, the ar- 
ticle should be omitted." Therefore it should stand thus, Reason was given to man to control his 
passions.] 

The fire, the air, the earth, and the water, are the four elements 
of the philosophers. Arithmetic is a branch of the mathematics. My 
friend is another sort of a man. He is strong in the faith. I am per- 
secuted this way unto the death. Such qualities honor the nature of a 
man. 

Note II. When a noun is not used in an unlimited sense, an article (or some other definitive,) 
should be prefixed to it ; as, " The wisest and the best men sometimes commit errors." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule II. 
We have within us an intelligent principle, distinct from body and from 
matter. Beware of drunkenness ; it impairs understanding. There are 
some evils of life which equally affect both prince and people. 

Note III. In expressing a comparison, if both nouns relate to the same thing, the article should 
not be prefixed to the latter j if to different things, it should not be omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule II. 

He is a much better writer than a reader. I should rather wrong a 
friend than foe. 

Note IV. When titles are mentioned merely as titles, the article should not be used. 
Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule II. 

The king has conferred on him the title of a duke. Our com m a a 
presented him the commission of a captain. The highest t; t ip : n t . ^ 
is the Governor. ,n the Stat <> 



92 SYNTAX. 

Note V. When the indefinite article is required, a should always be used before the sound of a 
consonant, and an before that of a vowel. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule II. 

This is an historical allusion. This is an hard saying. I have not seen 
such an one. 

Note VI. Inconsistent qualities should not be joined to the same noun ; as, " The Old and new 
method." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule II. 

The book was read by the old and young. I have both a large and 
small grammar. 1 saw both the large and small vessel. 



VERBS, 

RULE III. 

A Verb must agree with its nomination case in number and per- 
son; as, u I learn; thou art improved; the birds sing." 

The following are a few instances of the violation of this rule:— What signifies good opinions 
when our practice is bad ? Whai signify. We may suppose there was more imposters than one j 
There were more. If thou would be healthy, live temperately ; If thou wouldst. Thou sees 
how little has been done ; Thou seest. Though thou cannot do much for the cause, thou may 
and should do something ; Canst not, mayst, and shouldst. Full many a flower are born to blush 
unseen ; Is born. A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us; Has been. In piety and 
virtue consist the happiness of man ; Consists. To these precepts are subjoined a copious selec" 
tion of rules and maxims ; Is subjoined. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule III. 
A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. 

[Not proper, because the verb charm, is of the plural number, and does not agree with its nomi- 
native variety, which is singular. But, according to Rule 3d, "A -verb must agree with its nomina- 
tive case in number and person." Therefore charm should be charms ; thus, "A variety of pleasing 
objects charms the eye.] 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of hope give 
consolation. The smiles that encourages severity of judgment, hides 
malice and insincerity. He dare not act contrary to his instructions. 
Fifty pounds of wheat contains forty pounds of flour. The mechanism 
of clocks and watches were totally unknown a few centuries ago. The 
number of inhabitants in Great Britain and Ireland do not exceed sixteen 
millions. Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. In 
the conduct of Parmenio, a mixture of wisdom and folly were very con- 
spicuous. The inquisitive and curious is generally talkative. Great pains 
has been taken to reconcile the parties. I am sorry to say it, but there 
was more equivocators than one. The sincere is always esteemed. There 
is many occasions in life, in which silence and simplicity is true wisdom. 
Thou, who art the Author and Bestower of life, can doubtless restore it 
also ; but whether thou will please to restore it, or not, thou only knows. 

O thou my voice inspire, 

Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 

Accept these grateful tears ; for thee they flow, 
For thee that ever felt another's wo. 



SYNTAX. 93 

Note I. Every verb (excepting the infinitive mood,) must have a nominative case, either ex- 
pressed or implied 5 as, "Awake 5 arise •," that is, "Awake ye ; arise ye." 

Examples to he corrected under Note 1, Rule III. 
If the privileges, to which he has an undoubted right, and he has long 
enjoyed, should now be wrested from him, would be flagrant injustice. 
These curiosities we have imported from China, and are similar to those 
which were, sometime ago, brought from Africa. 

Will martial flames forever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heav'n resigned ? 

Note II. Every nominative case, except the case absolute, and when an address is made to a 
person, should belong to some verb, either expressed or implied ; as, " Who wrote this book ?" 
" James ;" that is, " James wrote it." " To whom thus Adam," that is, " spoke." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule III. 
Two substantives, when they come together, and do not signify the 
same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. Virtue, however it 
may bo neglected for a time, men are so constituted as ultimately to ac- 
knowledge and respect genuine merit. 

Note III. Though a noun of multitude, (or signifying many,) may have a verb, or a pronoun 
agreeing with it, either of the singular or plural number, yet, regard must be had to the import 
of the word, as conveying unity or plurality of idea; as, "The meeting was large j" " The nation 
is powerful j" " The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure as their chief good." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule III. 
The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. The crowd 
were so great that the judges with difficulty made their way through 
them. When the nation complain, the rulers should listen to their voice. 
In the days of youth, the multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief 
good. The church has no power to inflict corporal punishment. The 
fleet were seen sailing up the channel. The regiment consist of a thou- 
sand men. The meeting have established several salutary regulations. 
The fleet is all arrived and moored in safety. 



ADVERBS. 
RULE IV. 

Jldverbs qualify verbs and participles. 

Note I. Adverbs though they have no properties, should have that position which will render 
the sentence most perspicuous and elegant. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule IV. 
The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

[Not proper, because the adverb perpetually is not in its proper place. But, according to 
Note lst,Rule4th. u Adverbs,though they have no properties, should have that position which zvill render 
the sentence most perspicuous and elegant." Therefore, perpetually should be placed before in ; 
thus, " The heavenly bodies are perpetually in motion."] 

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. William nobly acted, 
though he was unsuccessful. We may happily live, though our posses- 



94 SYNTAX. 



sions are small. He offered an apology, which being not admitted, he 
became submissive. So well educated a boy gives great hopes to his 
friends. We always should prefer our duty to our pleasure. It is impos- 
sible continually to be at work. One argument should happily appear to 
rise from another. These things should be never separated. 

Note II. The adverbs Acre, there, and where, ought not to be applied to verbs signifying motion ; 
as, " He came here hastily j" " They rode there with speed j" instead of " He came hither," "They 
rode thithtr" &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule IV. 
It is reported that the prince will come here to-morrow. George is 
active ; he walked there in less than an hour. Where are you all going 
in such haste ? Whither have they been since they left the city ? 



Note III. Two negatives, in English, destroy one another, or are equivalent to an affirmative j 
as, u Nor did they not perceive him j" that is, " they did perceive him." " His language, though 
Inelegant, is not ungrammatUalf that is, " it is grammatical. 1 ' 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule IV. 

Neither riches, nor honors, nor no such perishing goods can satisfy the 
desires of an immortal spirit. Be honest, nor take no shape nor sem- 
blance of disguise. We need not nor do not confine his operations to 
narrow limits. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 
Nothing never affected her so much as this misconduct of her child. Do 
not interrupt me yourselves, nor let no one disturb my retirement. The 
measure is so unexceptionable, that we cannot by no means permit it. I 
have received no information on the subject, neither from him nor from 
his friend. 



FARTICIPLES. 

RULE V. 

Participles relate to nouns or pronouns, or are governed by pre- 
positions. 

PRONOUNS. 
RULE VI. 

Relative pronouns agree ivith their antecedents in person, number, 
and gender. 

[The relative being of the same person that the antecedent is, requires the verb which agrees 
with it, to be of the same person that it would be to agree with the antecedent; as, " Thou who 
lovest wisdom walkest uprightly ; He who loves wisdom, walks uprightly."] 

Note I. All pronouns must agree with the nouns for which they stand, in person, number and 
Render. 






ETYMOLOGY. 95 

» 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule VI. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment which was with her in the house, and 

put them on Jacob. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun them, is of the plural number, and therefore does not pro- 
perly represent the noun raiment, which is singular. But, according to Note 1st, Rule 6th. "All 
pronouns must agree with the nouns for xohich they stand, in p-rson, number, and gender. 19 There- 
fore, them should be it ; thus, " Rebecca took goodly raiment, which was with her in the house, 
and put it upon Jacob." 

The male among birds seems to discover no beauty, but in the color of 
its species. The wheel killed another man, which is the sixth which 
have lost their lives by this means. The fair sex whose task is not to 
mingle in the labours of public life, has its own part assigned it to act. 
The mind of man cannot be long without some food to nourish the acti- 
vity of his thoughts. I do not think any one should incur censure for 
being tender of their reputation. Thou, who has been a witness of the 
fact, canst give an account of it. In religious concerns, or what is con- 
ceived to be such, every man must stand, or fall, by the decision of the 
Great Judge. 

Note II. The relative pronoun, who, should be applied only to persons (and to other animals 
personified,) which to other animals, and inanimate things. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule VI. 

I am happy in the friend which I have long proved. The exercise of 
reason appears as little in these sportsmen, as in the beasts whom they 
sometimes hunt, and by whom they are sometimes hunted. They which 
seek wisdom, will certainly find her. The wheel killed another man, 
which is the sixth that has lost his life by this means. 

Note III. The relative that (applied to persons) is preferable to who in the following cases ; — 
First, after the interrogative who ; as, " Who that has any sense of religion, would have argued 
thus*?" Secondly, when persons make but part of the antecedent j as, " The woman and the 
estate, that became his portion, were rewards far beyond his desert. Thirdly, after an adjective 
in the superlative degree,— and after the adjective same, that is generally used in preference to 
who or which;— as, "Charles XII. king of Sweden, was one of the greatest madmen that the world 
ever saw." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule VI. 

Moses was the meekest man whom we read of in the Old Testament. 
Humility is one of the most amiable virtues which we can possess. The 
men and things which he has studied have not improved his morals. 

Note IV. When the name of a person is used merely as a name, the relative which should be 
used, and not who. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 4, Rule VI. 
Having once disgusted him, he could never regain the favor of Nero, 
who was indeed another name for cruelty. Flattery, whose nature is to 
deceive and betray, should be avoided as the poisonous adder. 

Note V. The relative pronoun should be placed as near its antecedent as possible, to prevent 
ambiguity iu the sense. 



96 SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 5, Rule VI. 

The king dismissed his minister without any inquiry ; who had never 
before committed so unjust an action. There are millions of people in 
the empire of China whose support is derived almost entirely from rice. 

NoterYl. When the antecedent only implies the idea of persons, and expresses them by some 
circumstance or epithet, which should be used, and not who; as, " The faction which,'' &c. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 6, Rule VI. 
He instructed and fed the crowds who surrounded him. The court, 
who gives currency to manners, ought to be exemplary. 

Note VII. Persoi^al pronouns being used to supply the place of the noun, should not be em- 
ployed in the same p&rt of the sentence-, as, " The king he is just." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 7, Rule VI. 

Whoever entertains such an opinion, he judges erroneously. The cares 
of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue. 



RULE VII. 

Every Adjective Pronoun belongs to some noun or pronoun ex- 
pressed or understood, [See examples under Rule I.] 



VERBS. 
RULE VIII. 

Transitive Verbs govern the objective case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Who did they entertain so freely ? 

[Not proper, because the relative who, which is the object of the transitive verb did entertain, is 
in the nominative case. But, according to Rule 8th. " Transitive verbs govern the objective case." 
Therefore, who should be whom ; thus, " Whom did they entertain so freely ?" 

They, who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has corrupted, 
cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. Who have I reason to love 
so much as this friend of my youth? Ye, who were dead, hath he quick- 
ened. The man who he raised from obscurity is dead. He and they we 
know, but who are you ? She that is idle and mischievous, reprove 
sharply. Who did they send to him on so important an errand? That 
is the friend who you must receive cordially, and whom you cannot es- 
teem too highly. He invited my brother and I to see and examine his 
library. He who committed the offence, you should correct ; not I who 
am innocent. 



SYNTAX. 



97 



PARTICIPLES. 

RULE IX. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs have from which 
they are derived ; as, " I am weary with hearing him ;" " She 
is instructing ws ;" " The tutor is admonishing Charles." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule IX. 
Suspecting ye of unfairness, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. 

(Not proper, beeause the pronoun ye, which is the object of the participle suspecting, is in the 
nominative case. But, according to Rule 9th, " Participles have the same government as the v.rbs 
have from xuhich they are derived." Therefore, ye should be you ; thus, Suspecting you of unfair- 
ness, I was studious to avoid all intercourse.] 

Esteeming theirselves wise, they became fools. Suspecting not only 
ye, but they also, I was studious to avoid all intercourse. I could not 
avoid considering, in some degree, they as enemies to me ; and he as a 
suspicious friend. From having exposed his self too freely in different 
climates, he entirely lost his health. 



Note I. When an Article, Possessive Adjective Pronoun, or Noun in the possessive case, is 
prefixed to a Participle, it becomes a Noun, and should be followed by the Preposition of, if there 
be any following word which needs government. Both must be used, or both omitted. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule IX. 

By observing of truth, you will command esteem as well as secure 
peace. He prepared them for this event, by the sending to them proper 
information. A person may be great or rich by chance ; but cannot be 
wise or good, without the taking pains for it. Nothing could have made 
her so unhappy as the marrying a man who possessed such principles. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 
RULE X. 

Nouns and Pronouns connected by conjunctions must be in the 
same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule X. 
You and us enjoy many privileges. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun us, which is in the objective case, is connected to you, which is 
m the nominative. But, according to Rule lOtb, " Nou ta an I pronouns connected by conjunctions 
must be in the same case." Therefore us should be we ; thus, You and wt enjoy many privileges.] 

My brother and him are tolerable grammarians. She and him are 
very unhappily connected. Between him and I there is some disparity 
of years ; but none between him and she. 

13 



98 SYNTAX. 

PREPOSITIONS. 
RULE XL 

Prepositions govern the objective case, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be connected under Rule XL 

He laid the suspicion upon some body, I know not who in the com- 
pany. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun who, which is the object of the preposition upon, is in the 
nominative case. Bat, according to Rule 11th, "Prepositions govern the objective case." There- 
fore -who should be whom ; thus, I know not whom in the company.] 

I hope it is not I who he is displeased with. To poor we, there is not 
much hope remaining. Does that boy know who he speaks to ? Who 
does he offer such language to ? It was not he they were so angry with. 
What concord can subsist between those who commit crimes, and they 
who abhor them ? The person who I travelled with, has sold his horse 
which he rode on during our journey. Who did he receive thr-t intelli- 
gence from ? 

Note I. The preposition to is used before Nouns of place, when they follow Verbs, and parti- 
ciples of motion •, but at is generally used after the Verb to be. The Preposition in is set before 
countries, cities and large towns; but before villages, single houses, and cities, which are in dis- 
tant countries, preceded by a Neuter Verb, at is used. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XL 

I have been to London, after having resided a year at France ; and I 
now live in Islington. They have just landed in Hull, and are going for 
Liverpool. They intend to reside some time at Ireland. 

[For further remarks on the use of Prepositions see page 81.] 



RULE XII. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case is governed by the noun 
it possesses ; as, "My father's house ;" "Man's happiness ;" 
" Virtue's reward." 

Note I. In writing the possessive case, its proper form should be observed. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XII. 
His brothers offence will not condemn him. 

[ Not proper, because the noun brothers, which is intended for the singular number possessive cose, 
is in the plural number, and has not the proper form of that case. But, according to Note 1st. 
Rule 12th., " In writing the possessive case, Hs proper form should be observed." Therefore, brothers 
should be brother's ; thus, His brother's offence will not condemn him.] 

I will not destroy the city for ten sake. Nevertheless, Asa his heart 
was perfect with the Lord. A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, 
are natures gifts' for mans advantage. A mans manner's frequently influ- 
ence his fortune. Wisdoms precepts' form the good mans interest and 
happiness. 



SYNTAX. 99 



Note II. When several Nouns in the possessive case come together, the apostophe with j, 
is annexed to the last, and understood after the others. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 2, Rule XII. 
It was the men's, women's, and children's lot, to suffer great calami- 
ties. Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation, was that of fishermen. 

Note III. To avoid a recurrence of hissing sounds, the s, is sometimes omitted, and the apos- 
tophe only retained ; as, " Achillis' wrath." 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule XII. 

And he cast himself down at Jesus feet. Moses rod was turned into a 
serpent. For Herodias sake, his brother Philips wife. If ye suffer for 
righteousnesses sake, happy are ye. Ye should be subject for conscience's 
sake. 



RULE XIII. 

The infinitive mood may be governed by a verb, noun, adjective, 
or participle. 

Note I. When a verb in the infinitive mood follows mak, need, see, bid, dare, feel, hear, let, and 
some other words, the sign to should be omitted ; as, I make him study. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XIII. 
I need not to solicit him to do a kind action. 

[Not proper, because the sign to is inserted before the verb solicit, which follows need. But. 
according to Note 1st. Rule 13th, " When a verb in the infinitive mood follows, make, need, se, 6fC. 
the sign to should be omitted." Therefore, to should be omitted ; thus, I need not solicit him to do 
a kind action.] 

It is better to live on a little, than outlive a great deal. You ought not 
walk too hastily. I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. I dare 
not to proceed so hastily, lest I should give offence. I have seen some 
young persons to conduct themselves very discreetly. It is a great sup- 
port to virtue, when we see a good mind to maintain its patience and 
tranquility under injuries and affliction, and to cordially forgive its op- 
pressors. 



RULE XIV. 

Verbs connected by conjunctions must be in the same mood and 
tense, and of the same form of conjugation. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected Rule XIV. 
Did he not tell me his fault and entreated me to forgive him. 

[Not proper, because the word entreated, which is of the common form of conjugation, is con- 
nected to Did tell, which is of the emphatic form. But, according to Rule 13th, " Verbs connected 
by conjunctions must be in the same mood and tense, and of the some form of conjugation," There- 
fore, entreated should be entreat; thus, Did he not tell me his fault, and entreat me to forgive him.] 

Professing regard, and to art differentlv, discovers a base mind. Tf Jip 



100 SYNTAX. 

understand the subject, and attends to it industriously, be can scarcely 
fail of success. If a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them is gone 
astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine and goeth into the moun- 
tains and seeketh that which is gone astray? To be moderate in our 
views and proceeding temperately in pursuit of them, is the best way to 
ensure success. 

Note I. When the sense requires the Verbs to be of different moods or tenses, the nominative 
must be repeated •■, — then the Conjunction will connect two members of the sentence, not two 

words . 

Examples to be corrected under- Note 1, Rule XIV. 

Rank may confer influence, but will not necessarily produce virtue. 
He does not want courage, but is defective in sensibility. These people 
have indeed acquired great riches, but do not command esteem. Our 
season of improvement is short ; and whether used or not, will soon pass 
away. He might have been happy, and is now fully convinced of it. 

Note II. When a Disjunctive occurs between a singular Noun or Pronoun, and a plural one, the 
Verb is made to agree with the plural Noun or Pronoun, which should be placed next to the Verb- 

Examples to he corrected under Note 2, Rule XIV. 

Both of the scholars, or one of them at least, was present at the trans- 
action. Some parts of the ship and cargo were recovered ; but neither 
the sailors nor the captain was saved. The cares of this life, or the de- 
ceitfulness of riches, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a promising 
mind. 

Note III. When two pronouns, or a noun and a pronoun of different persons, are disjunctively 
connected, the verb must agree in number and person with the word nearest to it. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 3, Rule XIV. 

Either thou, or I art greatly mistaken, in our judgment on this subject. 
I or thou am the person who must undertake the business proposed. 



RULE XV. 
A Perfect Participle, unconnected with an auxiliary, relates to 
the noun or pronoun which it qualifies or describes. 



RULE XVI. 

Intransitive, Passive, and Neuter Verbs take the same case after 
as before them, when both words signify the same person, or thing. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XVI. 
1 would act the same part if I were him, or in his situation. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun him, which follows the neuter verb were, is in the objective 
case, and does not agree in case with the pronoun /. But, according to Rule 16th, "Intransitive 



SYNTAX. 101 

Passive, and Neuter verbs take the same ease after os before them, whin both words signify the same 
person or tuing." Therefore, him should be he ; thus, If I were he or in his situation.] 

Be composed: it is me — you have no cause for fear. I know not 
whether it were them who conducted the business; but. I am certain it 
was not him. He so much resembled my brother, that at first sight, I 
took it to be he. After all their professions, is it possible to be them ? 
If it was not him, who do you imagine it to have been? Who do you 
think him to be ? Whom do the people say that we are ? 



RULE XVII. 

Tioo or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, meaning the same 
thing, and having the same grammatical relation, are put by apposi- 
tion in the same case. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Examples to be corrected under Rule XVII. 
I paid the money to the merchant, he that bought your house. 

[Not proper, because the pronoun he, which is in apposition with merchant, is in the nomina- 
tive case. But, according to Rule 17th, u Tzvo or more nouns or nouns and pronouns, meaning the same 
thing, and having the same grammatical relation, are put by appositicninthe same case." Therefore 
he should be him; thus, I paid the money to the merchant, him that bought your house.] 

We should fear and obey the Author of our being, even He who has 
the power to reward or punish us forever. They shew Varus, he that 
was mentioned before. 



RULE XVIII. 

Jl verb, having two or more nominative words, connected by the 
copulative and, must be of the plural jorm. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XVIII. 
Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

[Not proper, because the verb removes, which is of the singular form, has two nominative 
connected by the copulative and. But, according to Rule 18th, "A verb, having txvo or more noyn- 
inaiivt words, conn-cted by the copulativ- and, must be of the plural form." Therefore, removes 
should be remove ; thus, Patience and diligence, like faith, remove mountains.] 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. Wisdom,,virtue, 
happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. In unity consists the wel- 
fare and security of every society. Time and tide waits for no man. His 
politeness and good disposition, was, on failure of their effect, entirely 
changed. Humility and knowledge, with poor apparel, excels pride and 
ignorance under costly attire. 



RULE XIX. 

A verb, having two or more nominatives connected by the disjunc- 
tive or, or nor, must be of the singular form. 



102 SYNTAX. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Rule XIX. 
Neither custom nor analogy support this opinion. 

[Not proper, because the verb support is of the plural form, and therefore does not agree with 
its two nominatives, custom and analogy taken separately. But, accoi ding to Rule I9th,"v4 verb 
having two or more nominatives connected by the disjunctive or, or nor, must be of the singular fo 
Therefore, support should be supports ; thus, Neither custom nor analogy supports this opinion.] 

Man's happiness or misery, are, in a great measure, put into his own 
hands. Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move 
merely as they are moved. Speaking impatiently to servants, or any 
thing that betrays inattention or ill-humor, are certainly criminal There 
are many faults in spelling, which neither analogy nor pronunciation 
justify. When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune affect us, the 
sincerity of friendship is proved. 



RULE XX. 

When a noun or pronoun has no verb to agree with it, but is pla- 
ced before a participle, it is in the nominative case absolute. 



RULE XXI. 

When a direct address is made to a person or thing, the noun or 
pronoun is in the nominative case independent. 



RULE XXII. 

The Infinitive Mood, or part of a sentence, is sometimes the sub - 
ject of a verb, and therefore its nominative. 

Note I. When the sentence conveys, a unity of idea, the Verb must be of the singular number • 
but when it conveys a plurality of meaning, it must be plural. The Verb must always be singu- 
lar, when the nominative sentences, or parts of sentences, are preceded by the Conjunction that. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under Note 1, Rule XXII. 
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, are required of all men. 

[Not proper, because the verb are, is of the plural number, and does not properly agree with 
the preceding words which convey a unity of idea, and form its nominative. But, according to 
Note 1st. Rule 22d., "When the sentence conveys a unity of idea the verb must be of the singular 
number," &c. Therefore, are ought to be is ; thus, To live soberly, righteously, and piously, 
is required of all men.] 

To do unto all men, as we would that they, in similar circumstances, 
should do unto us, constitute the great principle of virtue. From a fear 
of the world's censure, to be ashamed of the practice of precepts, which 
the heart approves and embraces, mark a feeble and imperfect character. 
The erroneous opinions which we form concerning happiness and misery, 
gives rise to all the mistaken and dangerous passions that embroils our 
life. That it is our duty to promote the purity of our minds and bodies. 



SYNTAX. 10$ 

to be just and kind to our fellow creatures, and to be pious and faithful 
to Him that made us, admit not of any doubt in a rational and well in- 
formed mind. To be of a pure and humble mind, to exercise benevo- 
lence towards others, to cultivate piety towards God, is the sure n. 
of becoming peaceful and happy. The possession of our senses entire, of 
a sound understanding, of friends and companions, are often overlooked ; 
though it would be the ultimate wish of many, who, as far as we can 
judge, deserves it as much as ourselves. 



OAT THE USE OF THE MOODS AND TENSES. 

Note I. In the use of words and phrases which in point of time relate to each other, a due 
regard to that, relation should be observed. Instead of saying, "the Lord hath given and the Lord 
hath taken away," we should say, "the Lord gave and the Lord hath taken away." Instead of, 
"I remember the family more than twenty years," it should be, "I have remembered the family 
more than twenty years." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Examples to be corrected under JVote I. 
The next new-year's day I shall be at school three years. And he that 
was dead, sat up and began to speak. I should be obliged to him if he 
will gratify me in that particular. And the multitude wondered, when 
they saw the dumb to speak, the maimed to be whole, the lame to walk, 
and the blind seeing. In the treasury belonging to the Cathedral, in this 
city, is preserved with the greatest veneration, for upwards of six hundred 
years, a dish which they pretend to be made of emerald. 

Note II. All Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention or command, must invariably, be fol- 
lowed by the Present tense, and not the Perfect, of the Infinitive. 

Examples to be corrected under Note II. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son according to his merit. It 
would on reflection, have given me great satisfaction to relieve him from 
that distressed situation. It inquired so much care, that I thought I 
should have lost it before I reached home. We have done no more than 
it was our duty to have done. He would have assisted one of his friends, 
if he could do it without injuring the other; but as that could not have 
been done, he avoided all interference. These enemies of Christianity 
were confounded, whilst they were expecting to have found an opportu- 
nity to have betrayed its author. His sea-sickness was so great that I 
feared he would have died before our arrival. If these persons had in- 
tended to decieve, they would have taken care to have avoided what 
would expose them to the objections of their opponents. 

Nott III. Some coujunctious require the indicative form of the subjunctive mood, and some the 
elliptical, after them. It is a good general rule, that when something doubtful is expressed, with 
an allusion to future time, the elliptical form ought to be used: as, "he will not be pardoned, 

unless he repent." 

Examples to be corrected under JVote III. 

If lie acquires riches, they will corrupt Ins mind, and be useless to oth- 
ers. Though In 1 urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply, unless 



104 SYNTAX. 

lie advances more forcible reasons. I shall walk in the fields to-day 
unless it rains. As the governess were present, the children behaved 
properly. She disapproved the measure, because it were very improper. 
Though he be high, he hath respect to the lowly. 

Note IV. Lest and that, annexed to a command preceding, necessarily require the elliptical 
form of the Subjunctive Mood ; and if, with but followng it, when futurity is denoted, also require 
the elliptical form. 

Examples to be corrected under JYote IV. 

Despise not any condition lest it happens to be your own. Let him 
that is sanguine, take heed lest he miscarries. Take care that thou 
breakest not any of the established rules. If he does but intimate his 
desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. At the time of his re- 
turn, if he is but expert in the business, he will find employment. If he 
do but speak to display his abdities, he is unworthy of attention. If he 
be but in health, 1 am content. Though he do praise her, it is only for 
her beauty. If thou dost not forgive, perhaps thou wilt not be forgiven. 
If thou do sincerely believe the truths of religion, act accordingly. Un- 
less he learns faster he will be no scholar. Though he falls he shall not 
be utterly cast down. On condition that he comes, I will consent to stay. 

Note V. The Imperfect Tense, and all the compound Tenses of the Subjunctive, retain the 
same termination with the Conjunction, that they would, in any other mood, without it. 

This Note applies to all Verbs except the Neuter Verb Be, this verb when in the subjunctive 
Mood, varies its form from the Indicative, in the Imperfect as well as the Present Tense. 

Examples to be corrected under Note V. 

If thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. Though he 
have proved his right to submission, he is too generous to exact it. Un- 
less he have improved, he is unfit for the office. If thou had succeeded, 
perhaps thou would not be the happier for it. Though thou did injure 
him, he harbors no resentment. Was he ever so great and opulent, this 
conduct would debase him. Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would 
look like flattery. Though I was per.ff.ct, yet I would not presume. 
Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honorably. Though 
thou might have foreseen the danger, thou could not have avoided it. 

Note VI. When the qualities of different things are compared, the latter Noun or Pronoun, is 
not governed by the Conjunction than or as, but agrees with a Verb, or is governed by a Verb 
or a Preposition expressed or understood 5 as, "thou art wiser than I •,'' that is, "than I am." 
"They loved him more than me 5" that is, "more than they loved me." "The sentiment is well 
expressed by Plato ; but much better by Solomon than him 5 that is, "than by him." 

Examples to be corrected under Note VI. 
In some respects, we have had as many advantages as them ; but in 
the article of a good library, they have had a greater privilege than us. 
The undertaking was much better executed by his brother than he. They 
are much greater gainers than me by this unexpected event. They know 
how to write as well as him ; but he is a much better grammarian than 
them. Though she is not so learned as him, she is as much beloved and 
respected. These people, though they possess more shining qualities, are 
not so proud as him, or so vain as her. 



SYNTAX. 105 

PROMISCUOUS EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

To be corrected by the preceding Rules and Notes. 

Several additions have been made to the work. The first proposal was 
essentially different and inferior to the second. He is more bold and 
active, but not so wise and studious as his companion. Thou nearest the 
sound of the wind, but thou canst not tell whence it cometh, and whither 
it goeth. Neither has he, nor any other persons, suspected so much dis- 
simulation. The court of France, or England was to be the umpire. In 
the reign of Henry II. all foreign commodities were plenty in England. 
There is no talent so useful towards success in business, or which puts 
men more out of the reach of accidents, than that quality generally pos- 
sessed by persons of cool temper, and is, in common language, "called 
discretion. The first project was to shorten discourse, by cutting poly- 
syllables into one. I shall do all I can to persuade others to take the 
same measures for their cure which I have. The greatest masters of 
critical learning differ among one another. Micaiah said, if thou certainly 
return in peace, then hath not the Lord spoken by me. I do not suppose, 
that we Britons want a genius more than the rest of our neighbors. The 
deaf man whose ears were opened, and his tongue loosened, doubtless 
glorified the great Physician. Groves, fields and meadows, are at any 
season of the year, pleasant to look upon ; but never so much as in the 
opening of the spring. The multitude rebuked them, because they should 
hold their peace. The intentions of some of these Philosophers,* nav of 
many, might and probably were good. It is an unanswerable argument 
of a refined age, the wonderful civilities that have passed between the 
nation of authors, and that of readers. It was an unsuccessful undertak- 
ing ; which, although it has failed, is no objection at all to an enterprize 
so well concerted. The reward is his due, and it has alreadv, or will 
hereafter, be given to him. By intercourse with wise and experienced 
persons, who know the world, we may improve and rub off the rust of a 
private and retired education. Sincerity is as valuable, and even more 
valuable, than knowledge. No person was ever so perplexed, or sustained 
the mortification, as he has done to day. The Romans gave, not only the 
freedom of the city, but capacity for employments, to several towns in 
Gaul, Spain, and Germany. Such writers have no other standard on 
which to form themselves, except what chances to be fashionable and 
popular. Whatever we do secretly, shall be displayed and heard in the 
clearest light. To the happiness of possessing a person of such uncom- 
mon merit, Boethius soon had the satisfaction of obtaining the highest 
honor his country could bestow. 



14 



PROSODY. 

Prosody consists of two parts; the former teaches the true pronunci- 
ation of words, comprising Accent, Quantity, Emphasis, Pause, and Tone | 
and the latter, the laws of Versification. 

Accent. — Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice on a 
certain letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better heard than the 
rest, or distinguished from them ; as in the word presume^ the stress of 
the voice must be on the letter u, and second syllable sume, which takes 
the accent. 

Quantity. — The quantity of a syllable is that time which is occupied 
in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short* 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel, which 
occasions it to be slowly joined, in pronunciation, to the following letter ; 
as, " Fall, bale, mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; which oc- 
casions the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter; as, " ant. 
bonnet, hunger." 

A long syllable requires double the time of a short one in pronounc- 
ing it : Thus, "Mate" and "Note" should be pronounced as slowly again, 
as "Mat" and "Not." 

Emphasis. — By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound of voice, 
by which we distinguish some word or words on which we design to lay 
particular stress, and to show how they affect the rest of the sentence. 
Sometimes the emphatic words must be distinguished by a particular 
tone of voice, as well as by a greater stress. 

Pauses. — Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total cessation 
of the voice, during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a measurable space 
of time. 

VERSIFICATION. 

Versification, or Poetry, is a species of composition, made according 
to certain harmonious measures, or proportions of sound. 

Rhyme is that kind of poetry in which the terminating sound of one 
line, agrees with that of another ; as, 
Go tell my son said he, 
All thou hast heard of me. 

Blank verse, like other poetry, is measured, but does not rhyme ; as, 
All on earth is shadow ; all beyond 
Is substance : the reverse is folly's creed. 



PROSODY. 107^ 

Of Poetical Feet. 

A certain number of syllables, connected, form a foot. They are called 
feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, as it were, steps along through 
the verse in a measured pace : and it is necessary that the syllables, 
which mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some way, 
be distinguised from the others. 

Feet are all reducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of 
three syllables ; viz. 

A Trochee - ~ A Dactyl * r ■ •* 

An Iambus w - An Amphibrach w - w 

A Spondee An Anapaest w w - 

A Pyrrhick * w A Tribrach ~ « « 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented and the last unaccented : 
as, hateful, pettish. 

Restless mortals toil for nought ; 
Bliss in vain from earth is sought. 

An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last accent- 
ed ; as, delay, behold. 

And may at last my weary age, 
Find out the peaceful hermitage. 

A Spondee has both the words or syllables accented ; as, a high 
tree, the pale moon. 

See the bold youth strain up the threatning steep, 

Old time brings man to his long home. 

A Pyrrhick has both the words or syllables unaccented ; as, on 
the tall tree. 

Jn a small stream, by the side of a mountain, 
We bath'd with delight. 

A Dactylhas the first syllable accented, and the last two unaccent- 
ed ; as, conqueror, horrible. 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature, 
Rise we to higher, &c. 

An Amphibrach has the first and last syllable unaccented, and the 
middle one accented ; as, delightful, amazing. 

The piece you say is incorrect, why take it, 
I'm all submission, what you'd have it mnke it. 

An Anapast has the two first syllables unaccented, and the last 
accented ; as incommode, contravene. 

May I govern my passions with absolute sway, 
And grow wiser and better, as life fades away. 

A Tribrach has all its syllables unaccented ; as, uupardonable, 
innumerable 

And rolls impetuous to the plain. 



108 PROSODY. 



Some of these feet maybe denominated principal feet; as pieces of 
poetry may be wholly, or chiefly formed of any of them. Such are the 
Trochee, Iambus, Dactyl, and Anapaest. They are capable also of num- 
erous variations by mixing them with each other, and by the admission 
of the secondary feet. The Spondee, Pyrrhick, Amphibrach, and Tri- 
1 v ach, are secondary feet. 

Measure, in poetry, is the number of syllables or feet contained in a 
line. The measures that are most in use, are those of ten, eight, and 
seven syllables: but the lambick, Trochaick, and Anapo&stick verse, is 
sometimes very short, and sometimes long measure. 



Directions respecting the use of Capital Letters. 

Capitals are used in the following situations. 

1. At;the beginning of every principal word in the titles of books, chap- 
ters, &c. as, "Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language; Rollin's 
Ancient History." 

2. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or any other 
piece of writing*. 

3. The beginning of the first word after a period ; and if the two sen- 
tences are totally independent, after a note of interrogation or exclama- 
tion. But, if a number of interrogative or exclamatory sentences are 
thrown into one general group ; or, if the construction of the latter sen- 
tence depends on the former, all of them except the first, may begin with 
small letters ; as, " How long, ye simple ones, will ye love simplicity ? and 
the scorners delight in their scorning ? and fools hate knowledge ? 
" Aias ! how different ! yet how like the same !" 

4. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a semicolon, or when 
it is m a direct form ; as, "Always remember this maxim; 'Know thy- 
self.' " 

5. The pronoun 7, and the interjection O, must always be capitals ; as 
" I write ; Hear, O earth." 

Ge At the beginning of every line in poetry. 

7. Ail names, epithets, or qualities of our Creator, are always begun, 
if not wholly written, with capitals; as, God, Lord, Supreme Being, Al- 
mighty, Most High, Divine Providence. The word heaven must always 
begin with a capital, when used as the name of the King of heaven ; as, 
"May Heaven prosper you." But when it is used as the name of the 
abode of the blessed, it may begin with a small letter, except at the be- 
ginning of a sentence; as, "The angels of heaven." "The Lord of 
heaven and earth." 

8. All proper names, of whatever description, must begin with capitals; 
of persons, heathen, gods and goddesses, brutes, the planets,* the fixed 
stars and constellations, countries, kingdoms, states, cities, towns, streets, 
islands, mountains, rivers, ships, seas, oceans, &c. as, Benjamin Franklin ; 
Sir Isaac Newton ; the Allegany Mountains ;• the Ohio River ; Lake Su- 
perior ; the Red Sea ; the Frigate Guerriere. Also ail adjectives derived 
from proper names ; as, the Newtonian System ; Grecian, Roman, Ameri- 
can, French, Italian, &c. 

* Earth excepted. 



PUNCTUATION. 109 

9. All titles of honour, professions, and callings of men, particularly 
when an address is made, ought to begin with capitals ; as, President 
Governor, General, Judge, Esquire, Mr. &c. Also all qualities used as, 
titles of men ; as, Honorable, Reverend, &c 

10. Capitals are always used to begin the names of all courts, societies 
and public bodies of men ; as, Congress, the General Assembly, the Su-' 
preme Judicial Court, the Court of Common Pleas, the Humane Society, 
the Corporation, &c. 

11. The names of all religions sects and denominations, are begun with 
capitals ; as, Episcopalians, Baptists, Friends, &c. 

12. Capitals are always used to begin the names of months, and the 
days of the week ; as, January, February, &c. Monday, Tuesday, &c. 
Also all public days ; as, a Public Thanksgiving, a Solemn Fast, &c. 

13. The names of all articles of commerce, when entered in merchants' 
books, advertisements, &c. should begin with capitals ; as, Linen, Cotton, 
Silk, Rum, Sugar, Tea, &c. Also all sums of money specified in notes, 
bonds, &c. as, Ten Dollars, and Seventy-five Cents. 

14. Very emphatical words are frequently begun, and sometimes wholly 
written in capitals. 



RULES FOR PUNCTUATION. 

COMMA 

The Comma usually separates those parts of a sentence which, though 
very closely connected in sense and construction, require a pause between 
them. 

Rule 1. The several words which compose a simple sentence, have in 
general so near a relation to each other, that no points are requisite, ex- 
cept a full stop at the end of it. But when the simple sentence is a long 
one, and the nominative case is accompanied with inseparable adjuncts, 
a comma should be inserted immediately before the Verb. 

Rule 2. When the connexion of the different parts of a simple sen- 
tence is interrupted by an imperfect phrase, a comma is usually placed 
before the beginning, and at the end of such phrase. 

Rule 3. When two or more Nouns, two or more Adjectives, two or 
more Verbs, or Participles, or Adverbs occur in the same grammatical 
construction, they are separated from each other by a comma ; but when 
they are closely connected by a Conjunction, the comma should not be 
inserted. 

Rule 4. Expressions in a direct address, the nominative case absolute, 
and the Infinitive Mood absolute, are separated from the body of the sen- 
tence by a comma. 

Rule 5. Simple members of sentences, connected by comparatives, are, 
for the most part, separated by commas. If the members are short, the 
comma is better omitted. 

Rule 6. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or with 
some marked variety, they should be distinguished by a comma. Such 
sentences are called antithetical. 



110 PUNCTUATION. 

Rule 7. Relative Pronouns are connective words, and generally admit 
a comma before them ; but when two members or phrases are closely 
connected by a Relative, restraining the general notion of the antecedent 
to a particular sense, the comma should be omitted. The whole of this 
rule applies, when the Relative is understood, as well as when expressed. 

Rule 8. A simple member of a sentence, contained within another or 
following another, must be distinguished, by a comma. If, however, the 
members succeeding each other are very closely connected, the comma 
is unnecessary. When a Verb in the Infinitive Mood follows its govern- 
ing Verb, with several words between them, those words should generally 
have a comma at the end of them. Several Verbs in the Infinitive Mood, 
having a common dependence, and, succeeding one another, are also 
divided by commas. 

Rule 9. When the Verb to be is followed by a Verb in the Infinitive 
Mood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative, the Verb 
to be is separated from the following Verb by a comma. 

Rule 10. Where a verb is understood, a comma may often be properly 
introduced. 

Rule 11. The words nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, formerly, now* 
lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short, and 
all other words and phrases of the same kind, must generally be separated 
from the context by a comma. 

SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into two or 
more parts, not so closely connected as those which are separated by a 
comma, nor yet so little dependent on each other, as those which are dis- 
tinguished by a colon. 

COLON. 

[This point is not so much used as formerly.] 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts, less con- 
nected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; but not so inde- 
pendent as separate, distinct sentences. 

The colon may be applied in the three following cases : — 

1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, but followed by 
some explanatory remark. 

2. When a semicolon, or more than one, have preceded, and a still 
greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the concluding sentiment,and 
show its relation to the first. 

3. The colon is generally used when an example,a quotation,or speech 
is introduced ; as,The Scriptures give us an amiable representation of the 
Deity, in these words : "God is love." 

PERIOD. 

When a sentence is complete and independent, and not connected in 
construction with the following sentence, it is marked with a period. 



PUNCTUATION 4 . HI 

The period should be used, also, after every abbreviated word ; as, M. 
S.— P. S.— N. B.— A. D.— O. S.— N. S., &c. 

The Point of Interrogation [?] is used when a question is asked. The 
Exclamation [!] is used when some sudden emotion of surprise, joy,grief, 
&c. is expressed. The Parentheses [()] are used when some necessary 
information or useful remark is introduced into the body of the sentence 
obliquely, and which may be admitted without injuring the grammatical 
construction ; as, 

"Know, then, this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
Virtue alone is happiness below." 

There are other characters, which are frequently made use of in com- 
position, which may be explained in this place, viz : 

An Apostrophe, marked thus ' is used to abbreviate or shorten a word ; 
as His for it is ; tho* for though ; e'en for even ; judged forjudged. Its chief 
use is to show the possessive case of nouns ; as, "A man's property ; A 
woman's ornament." 

A Caret, marked thus A is placed where some word happens to be left 
out in writing, and which is inserted over the hue. 

A Hyphen, marked thus - , is employed in connecting compounded 
words ; as, Lap-dog, tea-pot, pre-existence, self-love, to-morrow, mother- 
in-law. 

A Quotation " ". Two inverted commas are generally placed at the 
beginning of a phrase or a passage, which is quoted or transcribed from 
the speaker or author in his own words ; and two commas in their direct 
position, are placed at the conclusion : as, 

"The proper study of mankind is man." 



m 



